Kendall Thibodral's Anatomy Notes PDF

# Kendall Thibodral ## Classification of Joints & Articulations (movement of Synovial Joints): ### 3 types of Joints: - **Fibrous Joint** - Bones attached by fibrous connective tissue providing little/no movement. Ex: sutures between flat bones of skull. - **Cartilaginous Joint** - Bones connecte...

# Kendall Thibodral ## Classification of Joints & Articulations (movement of Synovial Joints): ### 3 types of Joints: - **Fibrous Joint** - Bones attached by fibrous connective tissue providing little/no movement. Ex: sutures between flat bones of skull. - **Cartilaginous Joint** - Bones connected by cartilaginous connective tissue by little/no movement. Ex: discs between vertebral bodies - **Synovial Joint** (typical) - Most movement - Bones capped w/ cartilage articulate in cavity lined by a membrane secreting a viscous fluid that absorbs heat of friction from movement, surrounded by fibrous capsule interlaced w/ ligaments & tendons. ### Types of Articulations (movement) at Synovial Joints: - **Flexion** - decreasing angle - **Extension** - increase in angle - **Adduction** - moving toward midline - **Abduction** - moving away from midline - **Circumduction** - circular movement. Ball in socket = large movement around axis. Neck or vertebrae. - **Rotation** - **Pronation** - moving palms toward posterior plane. - **Supination** - moving palms toward anterior plane. - **Inversion** - bottom of foot turns inward/toward midline - **Eversion** - bottom of foot turns outward/away from midline - **Elevation** - moving in superior direction - **Depression** - moving in inferior direction - **Plantar Flexion** - point toe down - **Dorsiflexion** - lift toe; flexing foot - **Medial Rotation** - toward the midline - **Lateral Rotation** - away from midline - **Opposition** - thumb - **Protraction** - moving toward anterior plane - jaw, shoulder - **Retraction** - moving toward posterior plane - scapula ## Tissue Outline ### 1. Epithelial Tissue **General Description:** - Sheet of cells that covers internal & external surfaces of the body and body cavities. Outer layer of your skin, and lines systems exposed to the external environment, like respiratory and digestive system. **Functions:** - Protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception. **Unique Characteristics:** - Polarity - different cells next to each other. Specialized contacts: fit close together to form continuous sheets, supported by connective tissue. Avascular but innervated - supplied by nerve fibers but it is avascular (no blood vessels). Regeneration - high regenerative capacity. **Shape & Layers:** - **Simple Epithelia** - single cell layer - Epithelium lines pathways that are used for absorption that are open to external environment. - **Stratified Epithelia** - two or more layers of cells - Epithelium lines fully internal pathways. - **Squamous** - flattened, seal-like shape - **Cuboidal** - box-like - **Columnar** - column-like - **Mucous Membrane** - lines majority of body cavities. Makes a thin film called serous fluid. ### 2. Muscular Tissue **3 Types** | Type | Function | Anatomy (Characteristics) | Location | |---|---|---|---| | **Skeletal Muscle Tissue** | Move the body by pulling on skin + bones | Cells shaped like cylinders, covered in connective tissue, striated (banded), single nucleus | Attached to the bones | | **Cardiac Muscle** | Propel blood | Cells are covered in connective tissue, striated (banded) | Wall of the heart | | **Smooth Muscle** | Squeezes substances through organs by contracting and relaxing | Spindle shaped cells, one nucleus | Walls of hollow organs, uterus, blood vessels | ### 3. Connective Tissue **General Description:** - The four main types of connective tissue: Proper tissue, Cartilage, bone, and blood. Connective tissue supports, connects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body. **Functions:** - Made up of cells, fibers, and a gel-like substance. - Supports, connects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body. - Carries nutrients, removes waste, helps repair damaged tissue. **Unique Characteristics:** - Common origin - all tissues come from mesenchyme (embryonic). - Degrees of vascularity varies based on tissue type. - Extracellular matrix - mostly made up of mostly fibers. **Four Main Groups of Connective Tissue (function, characteristics & location):** | Type | Function | Anatomy (Characteristics) | Location | |---|---|---|---| | **Proper Tissue** | Binding tissue. Can be loose, dense, and elastic. | Can be loose, dense and elastic. | All over the body | | **Cartilage** | Structural support, resists compression, elastic cartilage. | Hylaine, elastic, and fibrocartilage. | | **Osseous (bone)** | Structural support; tension and compression. | Compact bone and spongy bone | | **Blood** | Transports O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones to tissues in the body. | Red and white blood cells | ### 4. Nervous Tissue - **Describe the basic structure & function of the 2 types of nerve cells that make up the nervous tissue:** | Type | Function | Structure | |---|---|---| | **Neurons** | Send neurotransmitters and chemicals; give structure to and connect neurons. | Axon, Cell body, and dendrites | | **Glial Cells** | Support nervous tissue & flash-shaped | | **Neuroglia (glia)** | **Tissue Regeneration:** - Go back and highlight tissues that regenerate easily in **GREEN**, slowly in **YELLOW**, and do not regenerate in **RED**. ### 5. Homeostasis Notes: - Body is in homeostasis when needs are adequately met and is functioning smoothly. - Almost every organ system plays a role in maintaining homeostasis. - Wastes cannot accumulate, temperature must be maintained. - Chemical, thermal, and neural factors affect homeostasis. - Communication is essential for homeostasis. Nervous & endocrine system job (use neural-electrical impulses and bloodborne hormones). - Receptor monitors environment to respond to changes (stimuli) by sending information (input) to the second component (control center). - Input flows along the afferent pathway. The control center, which determines the set point, analyzes input in order to respond correctly. - Third component = The effector provides means for the control center stimuli. Control center efferent pathway. Mechanism is shut off (feedback rate). - Most homeostatic mechanisms are **negative feedback**** mechanisms - output shuts off the original stimulus/reduces intensity. - Endocrine controls blood volume through the hypothalamus. Meant to prevent sudden, severe changes to the body. - **Positive feedback** mechanisms enhance original stimulus so output is accelerated. Cause the variable to change to the opposite of the initial change. - Not often used. Can be used in urgent events that do not need a lot of adjustments - "cascades." - Control system becomes less efficient, and the body is less stable with age. Homeostatic imbalance occurs when negative feedback systems are overwhelmed, and destructive **positive feedback** takes over. ### Crash Course #19: Skeletal System **1. Introduction & Astronaut Bones (minute 0 - 2:20)** - Bones are alive, made of active connective tissue, generate new skeletons every 2-10 years. - Bone = calcium, phosphate, and minerals that help neurons fire & contractions. - Also responsible for hematopoiesis (blood cell production). - Is generated in bone marrow. **2. Bone Facts & Structure (minute 2:30 - 3:50)** - Homeostasis regulates production of glucose, diabete's. - Body has 206 bones divided into axial & appendicular groups. - Axial - down the middle, helps w/ protection. - Appendicular - limbs, limbs that attach to support, help w/ movement. - Long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones. - Tibia, sternum, pelvis, beuboid. **3. Internal Structure of Bone (minute 3:50 - 5:05)** - External layer = compact & internal = spongy. **What happens in the bone marrow? ** - Red = makes blood. Yellow = stores energy as fat. **Where are the following structures?** - **Diaphysis** - surrounds cavity full of yellow marrow. - **Epiphysis** - back end of diaphysis w/ spongy bone. **4. Structure of Bone (minute 5:05 - 9:25)** - **Osteon** - composed of tubes, cylindrical, weight bearing. - **Basic unit of bones.** - **Lamellae** - filled w/ collagen fibers. - **Lacunae** - oblong spaces that house osteocytes. - **Osteocyte** - mature bone cells - monitor/maintain bone matrix. - **Osteoblasts** - bone makers - secret collagen & enzymes. - **Bone starts as...** cartilage - calcium phosphate crystallizes on cartilage to make bone matrix. - **Osteoclast** - bone breaker - process lasts until ~25 yo - allows bones to regenerate - bone remodeling. - Conduct resorption - then in. **5. Bone Remodeling (minute 7:29 - 8:40)** - What do Osteocytes secrete? - **Collagen** & enzyme. - What do Osteoclasts do? - Detect fractures and fix them - goes through resorption. - **Resorption** - break down **collagen**. - **Apoptosis** - self destruction. - **Explain the relationship between the ratio of osteoblast & osteoclast and exercise:** - Exercising stimulates bone remodeling & bone strength. **6. Space Crews (minute 8:41 - 9:25)** - What happens to the ratio of osteoblast and osteoclasts in space? - **Osteoclast ☝️, Osteoblast ⬇️,** 1-2% bone loss. Makes bone weaker, making it harder to remodel. - A one-way trip to **Mars** would take 9 months. Then in order for a return trip to be possible astronauts would need to wait about 3 months (for Earth and Mars to come into alignment) before making the 9 month journey back to Earth - totalling 21 months in microgravity. Is it possible? - **Could be possible, would need to exercise for bone regeneration.** ## Muscular Anatomy of Cell & Organ Study Guide SLIDES **Main Function of Muscular System: (slide 2)** - Main function is movement (bones + blood). - Secondary functions: maintaining posture, generating heat, stabilizing joints. **3 Types of Muscle Tissue (slide 3)** | Type | Description | Characteristics | |---|---|---| | **Smooth Muscle** | Involuntarily controlled, not striated, pushes objects/substances through internal passages, walls of hollow organs | | | **Cardiac Muscle** | Involuntarily controlled, striated, pumps blood, heart muscle | Multiple nuclei, striations | | **Skeletal Muscle** | Voluntarily controlled, striated, produces movement, attached to bones | | **Characteristics (slide 4)** | Type | Characteristics | | |---|---|---| | **Connective tissue components** | Epimysium, endomysium, perimysium | | | **Regulation of contraction** | Voluntary, via nervous system; controls | Endomysium attached to fibrous Skelton of heart. Involuntary; the heart has a pacemaker, also controls hormones, stretch | Endomysium | | **Speed of contraction** | Slow to fast | Slow | Very slow | | **Rhythmic Contraction** | No | Yes | Yes, in some | **Structures of Muscle Cells (slide 5)** - Muscle fiber (fibers) connects to connective tissue. - Skeletal muscle cells - Cardiac muscle cells - branched - Smooth muscle cells **Going from Small -> Big:** | Structure | Description | |---|---| | Macromolecule - Protein | | | Organelle | Myofilaments - myosin + actin; Myofibrils; sarcoplasmic reticulum; sarcoplasma; sarcolemma; T tubules | | Cell | Muscle cells are called muscle fibers | | Tissue | Made up of fascicles. Fascicles made up of bundles of muscle cells | | Organ | Made up of tissue - nerves, connective tissue, matrix, epithelial tissue, blood vessels, etc. | **First Diagram of a Muscle!** - Tendon - Epimysium - Skeletal muscle - Perimysium - Fasciculus - Endomysium - Muscle fiber (sarcolemma) - Myofibril (organelle) - Actin - Myosin - Sarcomere ## Neuromuscular Junction - Background Notes - To learn the neuromuscular junction, we need to learn the anatomy of a single muscle cell. - Remember - a muscle fiber is another word for a muscle cell. - Cells are made of smaller parts called **organelles**. A muscle fiber has 5 important organelles you need to understand. - **Myofibril** - the individual proteins that make up a muscle fiber. - **Sarcolemma** - the muscle fiber cell membrane. - **Sarcoplasmic reticulum** - regulates levels of calcium ions (Ca2+) in the muscle fiber. - **Releases** calcium ions when a muscle fiber is stimulated by an impulse. - **Does not** release calcium ions when there is no electrical impulse. - **Electrical impulse** - part of the **sarcolemma** that protrudes **deep** into the muscle fiber interior. - **T-tubules** - deep parts of the sarcolemma. - **Allows** electrical impulses to reach the **deepest** parts of the sarcolemma. - **Receptors** - binding sites on the muscle fiber that receive **neurotransmitters**. ## Lastly, we need to cover some important neuromuscular junctions: - **Motor neurons** - neurons that deliver **impulses** to the **muscles** to **stimulate** **contract**. - **Motor neurons** (messages) from the **brain** to **skeletal muscle fibers** to **contract**. - **Action potential:** an **electrical** impulse that travels through a **neuron**. - **Neuromuscular junction:** where a **motor neuron** and a **muscle fiber** come together. - **Axon terminal:** the end of the **axon** of an axon that sends an impulse **away** from the source. - **Synaptic cleft:** the space between the **axon terminal** of a motor neuron and a **muscle fiber**. - **Neurotransmitter:** a **chemical** message released by **neurons**. - **ACh** - **acetylcholine** - the neurotransmitter that motor neurons use to "tell" skeletal muscle to **contract**.