Kings And Kingdoms PDF

KINGS AND 2 KINGDOMS new dynasties emerged afterrulingthe any century. Map 1 shows the major...

KINGS AND 2 KINGDOMS new dynasties emerged afterrulingthe any century. Map 1 shows the major seventh the subcontinen parts ofcenturies. dynasties in different 0760CH0z between theseventh and twelfth Map 1 Major kingdoms, KASHMIR seventh-twelth SAIS centuries TIBET ARABS Brahmaputra R. OF MULTAN Brahmanutra K Indraprastha ARABS OF CHAHAMANAS Cham Kariauj NEPAL KAMARUPA MANSURAH GURJARA-PRÁTIHARAS Locate the Prayaga Benáres PaharpuN Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas ANARTA PARAMARAS NarmadaR CHANDEL ÁS yTKAL KALA PALAS and Chahamanas Tapi R. GANGAS anac (Chauhans). Can you identify ARABIAN Godavari RASHTRÄKUTAS B K A L I N G A BAYOF BENGAL the present-day SEA Malkhed(M¡nyakheta) EASTERN CHALUKYAS statesOver which VENGÓ they exercised control? Fluctuating frontier w CHOLAS P A N D Y A S ANDAMAN &NICOBAR ISLANDS LAKSHADWEEP INDIAN OCEAN The Emergence of New Dynasties Ry the seventh century, there were big warrior chiefs in different regions of the landlords or subcontinent. Bxisting kings often acknowledged them as their Subordinates or samantas. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support. As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a "circle or region) and so on. Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords. One such instance was that of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially they were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and Fig. 1 performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the Wall relief from Cave 15, Ellora, showing golden womb). When this ritual was performed with Vishnu as Narasimha, the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the the man-lion. "rebirth of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was It is a work of the not one by birth. Rashtrakuta period. In other cases, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Do you think Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who being born as gave up their traditional professions and took to arms, a Kshatriya was successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and important in Rajasthan respectively. order to become a ruler duringthis period? Administration in the Kingdoms Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhirqja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims, 17 KINGS AND KINGDOMS  they often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers -that is, peasants, cattle-keepers artisans - who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Sometimes these were claimed as rent due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Revenue was also collected from traders. Four hundred taxes! The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadu refer tomore than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes. The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti taken not in cash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, or land revenue. There were also taxes on thatching the house, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess on succession to family property, etc. Are any such taxes collected today? These resources were used to finance the king's In what ways establishment, as well as for theconstruction of temples was this form of and forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were in administration turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the different from form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes. the present-day system? The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. This was true about the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions. Prashastis and Land Grants Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves - as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration. OUR PASTS - II 18 The "achievements" of Nagabhata Many rulers described their achievements in prashastis (you read about the prashasti of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta last year). One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king, as follows: Also, see if you The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind) Vidarbha (part of can find some of the areas Maharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orisa)fell bcfore him mentioned in th even ashe was a prnce... inscription on He won avictory over Chakrayudha (the ruler of Kanau)... Map 1. He defeated theking ofVanga (part ofBengal) Anarta (part Other rulers made of Gujarat) Malava (part ofMadhya Pradesh) Kirata (forest similar claims as peoples), Turushika (Turk_) Vatsa, Matsya (both kingdoms well. Why do you think they made in north India)... these claims? Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land. Fig. 2 This is a set of copper plates recording a grant of land made by a ruler in the ninth century, wuritten partly in Sanskrit and partly in Tamil. The ring holding the plates together is secured with the royal sea, to indicate that this is an authentic document. 19 KINGS AND KINGDOMS  What was given with the land This is a part of the Tamil sectionof a land grant given bythe Cholas: We have demarcated the boundaries of the land by making earthen embankments, as wellas by panting thorny busfes This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water. land, gardens and orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-land, avillage, anthills, platforms,canals, ditches rivers, silt-laden land, tanks, granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, and deep lakes. He who recetves the land can collect taxes from it. He can collect the taxes imposed by judicialofficers as fines, the tax on betel-leaves, that on woven cloth, as well as on vehicles. He can build large rooms, with upper stories made of baked bricks,he can get large andsnall welsdug, he can plant trees and thorny 6ushes, if necessary, he can get canals constructed for irrigation. He shouldensurethat water is not wasted, and that embankments are built. List all the possible sources of irrigation mentioned in the inscription, and discuss how these might have been used. Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. It was composed by an author named Kalhana. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writers of prashastis, he was often critical about rulers and their policies. Warfare for Wealth You may have noticed that each of these ruling dynasties was based in a specific region,. At the same time,they tried to control other areas. One particularly 20 prized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley. For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for, Look at Map 1and controlover Kanauj. Becausethere were three "parties" suggest reasons in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe why these rulers it as the "tripartitestruggle". wanted to control Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and Kanauj and the resources by building large temples. So, when they Ganga valley. attacked one another's kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich. One such ruler is Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He raided the subcontinent 17 times (1000-1025)with a religious motive. His targets were wealthy temples, incuding that of Somnath, Gujarat. Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away wàs used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Other kings who engaged in warfare included the Look at Map 1 Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who again and ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They discuss why the Chahamanas attempted to expand their control to the west and may have wanted the east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas to expand their of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar territories. Pradesh. The Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191,but lost to him the very next year, in 1192. A Closer Look: The Cholas From Uraiyur to Thanjavur How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from th Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there. 21 KINGS AND KINGDOMS  NarmadaR YADAVAs Mahanadi R. Go O0avan CHALUKYAS R K A L I N G A Under Vikramaditya VI K A K A T I Y A S ABABIAN Kalyani BAY OF SEA KAÐAMBAS VENGI BENGAL NOLAMBAVAD unga VAS 4wA Pennar R Kanchi Fluctuating frontier N GANGAVAD or R. Gangaikondacholapuram Madurai UraiyurThanjavur Map 2 PANDYA The Chola iingdom and its neighbours. INDIAN 0CEAN The successors ofVijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom. Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these areas. He also reorganised the administration of the empire. Rajaraja's son Rajendra I continued his policies and even invaded the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia,developing a navy for these expeditions. Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural marvels. OUR PASTS - II 22  Fig. 3 The temple at Gangaikordacholapuram. Notice the way in which the roof tapers. Also look at the elaborate store sculpturesused to decorate the outer walls. Chola temples often becanme the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centres of craft production.Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it - priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. In other words, temples were not only places of worship;they were the centres of economic, social and cultural life. Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well. 23 KINGS AND KINGDOMS  Agriculture and Irrigation Many of the achievements of the Cholas e made possible through new agriculture. Look at Map 2 again. developments Notice thatin the river Kaveri branches off several small channels before emptying into into the Bay of Bengal. These channels frequently, depositing fertile overfl soil oomw their banks. Water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation. Forests had to be cleared in some regions; land had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta region, embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to carry water to the fields. In many areas, two crops were groWn in a year. In many cases it was water crops artificially. necessary to A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas wells were dug. In other places huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Remember that irrigation works require planning organising Fig. 4 A Chola bronze sculpture. Notice how carefullyit is decorated. - II 24 labour and resources, maintaining these works and deciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, took an active interest in these activities. The Administration of the Empire How was the administration organised? Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council and the nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Rich peasants exercised considerable control Over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muuvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief),etc., as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre. 25  Types of land Chola inscriptions mention several categories of vellanvagai land. land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmanas shalabhoga land for the maintenance of a school devadana, tirunamattukkani land gifted to temples pallichchhandam land donated to Jaina institutions We have seen that Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. These assemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples. Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns. Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of Chingleput the way in which the sabha was organised. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf; these tickets were into an earthenware pot, from which a young put was asked to take out the tickets, one by one boy tor each committee. OUR PASTS II 26 Inscriptions and texts Uttaramerur member of a sabha? The Who could be a inscription lays down: wish to become members ofthe sabha should Allthose who revenue is collected. land from which land be owners of homes. They shoudhave their own years of age. They shouldbe between 35 and70 the Vedas. Theyshould have knowldge of administrative matters in They should be wellversed and honest. committee in the last a member ofany Ifanyone has been member of anothercommittee. three years,he cannot become a accounts, and those of Anyone who has not submittedhis elections. his relatives, cannot contest the While inscriptions tellus about kings and powerful men, Periyapuranam, a twelfth here is an excerpt from the informs us about the lives century Tamil work, which of ordinary men and women. hamlet ofPulaiyas On the outskirts of Adanur was asmall "outcastes" by considered (aname used for a social group huts under Brahmanas and Vellalas) studded with small engaged old thatches and inhabited by agrarian labourers huts covered in menialoccupations. In the thresholds ofthe groups; with strips of leather, lttle chickens moved about in dark children who wore bracelets ofblackiron were prancing manudu about, carrying lttle puypies...In the shade ofthe (arjuna) trees, afemale labourer put her baby to sleep on a branches sheet of leather, there weremango trees fromwhose drums were hanging; and under the coconut palms, in little hollows on theground, tiny-headed bitches lay after wheping. The red-crested cock_ crowed beforedawn calling the brawny Pulatyar (plural) to their day's work; and by day, under the shade of the kanji tree spread the voice of the wav-haired Pulaiya women singing as they were husking paddy... 27