Animal Physiology PDF

A.BIO 2 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY ROSE ANN Z. MASA,RN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR V Cellular Injury  When variety of Changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external and internal environmental changes Cellular Injury Many Cancers developed in respon...

A.BIO 2 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY ROSE ANN Z. MASA,RN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR V Cellular Injury  When variety of Changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external and internal environmental changes Cellular Injury Many Cancers developed in response and Cancer to Chronic Tissue Injury. Injuries cannot cause cancer , but an Injury may lead to finding cancer in the injured area  Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer. Chemicals and radiation (x-rays) are known to induce cancer, associated with exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. Most skin cancers develop on the face, neck, or Cellular Injury hands. and Cancer Vulnerable group of people are : -fair-skinned (they have less protection from the sun) or -older than 50 (they have had long exposure to the sun).  >The most frequent type Three main >Begins with cells in the stratum basale types of skin and extends into the dermis to produce an cancer- open ulcer Basal cell >Surgical removal or radiation therapy carcinoma cures this type of cancer. >There is little danger that this type of cancer will spread, or metastasize, to other areas of the body.  >Develops from cells immediately superficial to the stratum Basale. >Normally, these cells undergo little or no cell division, but in squamous Three main cell carcinoma types of skin The cells continue to divide as they cancer produce keratin. Squamous cell carcinoma >The typical result is a nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the epidermis >If untreated, the tumor can invade the dermis and could metastasize and  >A rare form of skin cancer that arises from melanocytes, usually in a preexisting mole. >A mole is an aggregation, or “nest,” of melanocytes. Three main types of skin >The melanoma can appear as a large, flat, spreading lesion or as a deeply pigmented cancer- nodule Malignant >Metastasis is common, and unless melanoma diagnosed and treated early in development. This cancer is often fatal.   Limiting exposure to the sun and using sunscreens that block ultraviolet light can reduce the likelihood of developing skin cancer.  Ultraviolet light is classified into two types based on their wavelengths: UVA has a longer wavelength than UVB.  Exposure to UVA causes most tanning of the skin Skin cancer but is associated with the development of malignant melanoma.  Exposure to UVB causes most burning of the skin and is associated with the development of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas.  It is advisable to use sunscreens that effectively block both UVA and UVB. Cellular injury PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  Integumentary system can be used as a diagnostic aid. It can be observed easily and could reflects event occurring inside the body PHYSIOLOGY OF Ex: Cyanosis , Jaundice Rashes and Lesions are symptoms of problems elsewhere in the body THE Ex: Scarlet fever Development of rashes could possibly indicate reaction to drugs INTEGUMENTARY Condition of the nails and hair indicate nutritional status SYSTEM Skin reflects vitamin A status of the body: deficiency- sandpaper texture Nails with iron deficiency- loose normal contour Hair can reveal toxins /poisonous material in the body via toxicity test  Mia, Christine, and Landon are so excited about spending the day together. Their mothers are happy to see the children playing outside and getting some exercise. INTEGUMENTARY:LE ARN TO They spend the whole day running through the waves and playing in the sun. PREDICT 8 At the end of the day, Mia and Landon have tanned a bit, but poor Christine is sunburned, a condition that affects the integumentary system. By applying the information you learned, explain what natural and artificial factors may have influenced the children’s different reactions to the day of sun exposure.  Howey Stickum, a student nurse, learns three ways to give injections. An intradermal injection is administered by drawing the skin taut and inserting a small needle at a shallow angle into the dermis; an example is the tuberculin skin test. CASE ON POINT: A subcutaneous injection is achieved by pinching the skin to form a “tent” and inserting a short needle into the adipose tissue of the subcutaneous INJECTIONS tissue; an example is an insulin injection. An intramuscular injection is accomplished by inserting a long needle at a 90-degree angle to the skin into a muscle deep to the subcutaneous tissue. Intramuscular injections are used for most vaccines and certain antibiotics.  The evolution of skin color in humans is intriguing because it helps explain certain modern health problems. During human evolution, the skeletal system of our ancestors changed, resulting in an upright posture and the ability to walk and run greater distances. As a result of increased physical activity, excess heat is SKIN COLOR produced, which can cause overheating. An increase in the number of sweat glands in the skin and a reduction in and exposure the amount of hair covering the skin help eliminate the excess heat. to sunlight With the reduction in hair over most of the body, prolonged exposure of the skin to sunlight can be harmful in two ways. first, it promotes the development of skin cancer by damaging DNA; second, it decreases the levels of the B vitamin folate in the blood by breaking it down through a photochemical reaction.   Low folate levels are known to increase the risk abnormal development of the fetal nervous system.  Exposure to ultraviolet light from the sun stimulates the production of vitamin D SKIN COLOR  Vitamin D promotes the uptake of calcium and exposure from the small intestine, which is important for the normal development of to sunlight the skeletal system in the fetus and in children.  Inadequate quantities of vitamin D can result in rickets, a condition in which the bones are soft, weak, and easily broken.  Thus, increased skin pigmentation protects against skin cancer and abnormal development of the nervous system but impairs skeletal system development. SKIN COLOR and exposure to sunlight The optimal amount of melanin in the skin should be large enough to protect against the harmful effects of ultraviolet light but small enough to allow ultraviolet light to stimulate vitamin D production. ultraviolet light intensity is high in the tropics but diminishes toward the poles.   The skin color of populations is a genetic adaptation to their different exposure to ultraviolet light.  Dark-skinned people in the tropics have more melanin, which provides protection SKIN COLOR against ultraviolet light, but can still produce vitamin D year-round. and exposure  Light- skinned people at higher latitudes to sunlight have less melanin, which increases the body’s ability to produce vitamin D while providing adequate ultraviolet light protection.   Explain the differences in skin color between (a) the palms of the hands and the lips, (b) the palms of the hands of a LEARN TO person who does heavy manual labor and PREDICT 9 one who does not, and (c) the anterior and posterior surfaces of the forearm.   Name: Sam Gender: Male Age: 23  Comments  Sam fell asleep while smoking after ingesting sleeping pills.  He received partial-thickness and full-thickness burns and was admitted to the emergency room and later System transferred to the burn unit in critical condition, suffering from shock. large volumes of intravenous pathology of the fluids were administered and Sam’s condition integumentary improved. system  He was given a high-protein, high-caloric diet. He was given topical antimicrobial drugs to treat infection of wounds the first few weeks of treatment.  Sam developed venous thrombosis in his left leg that required additional treatment. later, his physician recommended debridement of his wounds.   When large areas of skin are severely burned, the resulting systemic effects can be life-threatening.  Within minutes of a major burn injury, there is increased permeability of capillaries, which are the small blood vessels in which fluid, gases, nutrients, and waste products are normally exchanged between the blood and tissues. Burns:  This increased permeability occurs at the burn site and throughout the body. As a result, fluid and ions are lost from the burn wound and into Background tissue spaces.  The loss of fluid decreases blood volume, which decreases the heart’s Information ability to pump blood.  The resulting decrease in blood delivery to tissues can cause tissue damage, shock, and even death.  Treatment consists of administering intravenous fluid at a faster rate than it leaks out of the capillaries.   Although this fluid replacement can reverse the shock and prevent death, fluid continues to leak into tissue spaces, causing pronounced edema (swelling).  Typically, after 24 hours, capillary permeability returns to normal, and the amount of intravenous fluid administered can be greatly decreased.  How burns cause capillary permeability to change is not well understood.  It is clear that, following a burn, immunological and metabolic EDEMA changes occur that affect not only capillaries but the rest of the body as well. SWELLING  chemical mediators which are released in response to the tissue damage, contribute to changes in capillary permeability throughout the body.  Substances released from the burn may also play a role in causing cells to function abnormally.  Burn injuries result in an almost immediate hypermetabolic state, which persists until wound closure. BURNS Integumentary BURNS Pathology  When Sam was first admitted LEARN TO to the burn unit, the nurses PREDICT 10 carefully monitored his urine Burns output. Why does that make sense in light of his injuries?   https://www.facebook.com/reel/1122159588994986 LINKS  https://www.facebook.com/reel/1430616347584089 _INTEGUMENTARY  https://www.facebook.com/reel/1178969749437653 PHYSIOLOGY OF SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND JOINTS   Brittle Bone Disease  May is a 10-year-old girl who has a history of numerous broken bones.  At first, physicians suspected she was a victim of child PHYSIOLOGY abuse, but eventually they determined that she has brittle bone disease, or osteogenesis imperfecta, which OF SKELETAL literally means imperfect bone formation. SYSTEM:  She is short for her age, and her limbs are short and BONES AND bowed. Her vertebral column is also abnormally curved. Brittle bone disease is a rare disorder caused by any one JOINTS of a number of faulty genes that results in either too little collagen formation or poor quality collagen.  As a result, the bone matrix has decreased flexibility and is more easily broken than normal bones   Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue.  As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in width, or diameter. BONE  This process is called appositional growth. GROWTH  Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source of increased height in an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.  This type of bone growth occurs through endochondral ossification.  Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate. They line up in columns parallel to the long axis of the bone, causing the bone to elongate. Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die. The cartilage matrix becomes calcified. Much of the cartilage that BONE forms around the enlarged cells is removed by osteoclasts, and the dying chondrocytes are replaced by osteo- blasts. The osteoblasts GROWTH start forming bone by depositing bone lamellae on the surface of the calcified cartilage. This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.  Describe the appearance of an adult if cartilage growth did not occur in the long bones during childhood. What combination of movements at the LEARN TO shoulder and elbow joints allows a person PREDICT 11 to perform a crawl stroke in swimming? Discuss the occurrence of gout and the relationship in the conditions known as Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid arthritis.  Bone remodeling involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by osteoblasts. Bone remodeling occurs in all bone. Remodeling is LEARN TO responsible for changes in bone shape, PREDICT 11 the adjustment of bone to stress, bone Bone repair, and calcium ion regulation in remodeling the body fluids. Remodeling is also involved in bone growth when newly formed spongy bone in the epiphyseal plate forms compact bone.  A long bone increases in length and diameter as new bone is deposited on the outer surface and growth occurs at the epiphyseal plate. At the same time, bone is removed from the inner, medullary LEARN TO surface of the bone. PREDICT 11  As the bone diameter increases, the Bone thickness of the compact bone relative to remodeling the medullary cavity tends to remain fairly constant. If the size of the medullary cavity did not also increase as bone size increased, the compact bone of the diaphysis would become thick and very heavy.   Because bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body, bone remodeling is important to maintain blood calcium levels within normal limits. Calcium is removed from bones when blood calcium levels decrease, and it is deposited when dietary LEARN TO calcium is adequate. This removal and PREDICT 11 deposition is under hormonal control Bone  If too much bone is deposited, the bones become thick or develop abnormal spurs or remodeling lumps that can interfere with normal function. Too little bone formation or too much bone removal, as occurs in osteoporosis, weakens the bones and makes them susceptible to fracture new matrix.  Subsequently, the spongy bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and spongy bone, and the repair is complete.Although immobilization at a fracture point is critical during the early stages of bone healing, complete immobilization LEARN TO is not good for the bone, the muscles, or the PREDICT 11 joints. Not long ago, it was common practice to Bone immobilize a bone completely for as long as 10 weeks. But we now know that, if a bone is remodeling immobilized for as little as 2 weeks, the muscles associated with that bone may lose as much as half their strength. Furthermore, if a bone is completely immobilized, it is not subjected to the normal mechanical stresses that help it form  Bone matrix is reabsorbed, and the strength of the bone decreases. In experimental animals, complete immobilization of the back for 1 month resulted in up to a threefold decrease in vertebral compression strength. Modern therapy attempts to balance bone immobilization with enough LEARN TO exercise to keep muscle and bone from decreasing in size and strength and to maintain PREDICT 11 joint mobility. Bone These goals are accomplished by limiting the remodeling amount of time a cast is left on the patient and by using “walking casts,” which allow some stress on the bone and some movement. Total healing of the fracture may require several months. If a bone heals properly, the healed region can be even stronger than the adjacent bone.   Bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body, and movement of calcium into and out of bone helps determine blood calcium levels, which is critical for normal muscle and nervous BONES AND system function. Calcium (Ca2+) moves into HOMEOSTASIS bone as osteoblasts build new bone and out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone.When osteoblast and osteoclast activity is balanced, the movements of calcium into and out of a bone are equal.   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0cYal_hitz4 joints  The most significant age-related changes in the EFFECTS OF skeletal system affect the joints as well as the AGING On quality and quantity of bone matrix. The bone matrix in an older bone is more brittle than in a THE younger bone because decreased collagen SKELETAL production results in relatively more mineral and SYSTEM And less collagen fibers. With aging, the amount of matrix also decreases because the rate of matrix JOINTS formation by osteoblasts becomes slower than the rate of matrix breakdown by osteoclasts.   Bone mass is at its highest around age 30, and men generally have denser bones than women because of the effects of testosterone and greater body weight. EFFECTS OF  Race and ethnicity also affect bone mass. AGING On THE  African-Americans and Latinos have higher SKELETAL bone masses than Caucasians and Asians. After age 35, both men and women SYSTEM And experience a loss of bone of 0.3–0.5% a year. JOINTS This loss can increase 10-fold in women after menopause, when they can lose bone mass at a rate of 3–5% a year for approximately 5–7 years  A number of changes occur within many EFFECTS OF joints as a person ages. AGING On THE Changes in synovial joints have the SKELETAL greatest effect and often present major SYSTEM And problems for elderly people. With use, the JOINTS cartilage covering articular surfaces can wear down.   Significant loss of bone increases the likelihood of bone fractures.  For example, loss of trabeculae(thin column EFFECTS OF and plates of bone-Spongy structure in a cancellous bone) greatly increases the risk of AGING On THE fractures of the vertebrae. SKELETAL  In addition, loss of bone and the resulting SYSTEM And fractures can cause deformity, loss of height, JOINTS pain, and stiffness.  Loss of bone from the jaws can also lead to tooth loss.    Name: Betty Williams Gender: Female age: 65  Comments  Betty has smoked heavily for at least 50 years. She does not System exercise, seldom goes outdoors, has a poor diet, and is slightly underweight. pathology  While attending a family picnic, Betty and fell. She reported severe right hip pain and was not able to put any weight on her right leg when she arrived in the ER.  Radiographs revealed significant loss of bone density and a fractured femur neck  Decreased production of the female reproductive hormone estrogen can cause osteoporosis, mostly in spongy bone, especially in the vertebrae of the spine and the bones of the forearm. System Collapse of the vertebrae can cause a pathology decrease in height or, in more severe cases, of the kyphosis in the upper back. condition Estrogen levels decrease as a result of menopause; removal of the ovaries; among women amenorrhea (lack of menstrual cycle) due to extreme exercise or anorexia nervosa (self- starvation); or cigarette smoking.  Reduction in testosterone levels can cause loss of bone tissue. However, this is less of a problem in men than in women because men have denser bones than women, and testosterone levels generally don’t decrease significantly until after age 65. System Inadequate dietary intake or absorption of pathology of calcium, sometimes due to certain medications, can also contribute to osteoporosis. the condition Absorption of calcium from the small intestine among men decreases with age. Finally, too little exercise or disuse from injury can all cause osteoporosis. Significant amounts of bone are lost after only 8 weeks of immobilization  One fracture can be classified as Open (or compound), if the bone protrudes through the skin, and closed (or simple), if the skin is not perforated. If the fracture totally separates the two bone fragments, it is called complete; If it doesn’t, it is called incomplete. An incomplete fracture that occurs on the convex side Fractures of the curve of a bone is called a greenstick fracture. A comminuted (broken into small pieces) fracture is one in which the bone breaks into more than two fragments. An impacted fracture occurs when one of the fragments of one part of the bone is driven into the spongy bone of another fragment  When blood calcium levels are too low, osteoclast activity increases, osteoclasts release calcium from bone into the blood, and blood calcium levels increase. Conversely, if Fractures blood calcium levels are too high, osteoclast activity decreases, osteoblasts remove calcium from the blood to produce new bone, and blood calcium levels decrease.  Calcium homeostasis is maintained by three the following: 1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) from the parathyroid glands 2. Vitamin D from the skin or diet Fractures 3. Calcitonin from the thyroid gland. PTH and vitamin D are secreted when blood calcium levels are too low and calcitonin is secreted when blood calcium levels are too high. PTH works through three simultaneous mechanisms to increase blood calcium levels.   The shoulder joint is the most commonly dislocated joint in the body.  Mr. Bean dislocated his shoulder joint while playing basketball. As a result of a “charging” foul, Mr. Bean was knocked backward and Case on point: fell. Dislocated  As he broke his fall with his extended right arm, the head of the right humerus was shoulder forced out of the glenoid cavity.  While being helped up from the floor, Mr. Bean felt severe pain in his shoulder, his right arm sagged, and he could not move his arm at the shoulder.   Most dislocations result in stretching of the joint capsule and movement of the humeral head to the inferior, anterior side of the glenoid cavity. Case on point:  The dislocated humeral head is moved back to Dislocated its normal position by carefully pulling it shoulder laterally over the inferior lip of the glenoid cavity and then superiorly into the glenoid cavity. Once the shoulder joint capsule has been stretched by a shoulder dislocation, the shoulder joint may be predisposed to future dislocations. Some individuals have hereditary “loose” joints and are more likely to experience a dislocated shoulder.  Abduction(to take away) is movement away from the median or midsagittal plane; Joints and Adduction (to bring together) is movements movement toward the median plane Moving the legs away from the midline of the body, as in the outward movement of “jumping jacks,” is abduction, and bringing the legs back together is adduction.  Pronation and supination are best demonstrated with the elbow flexed at a 90-degree angle. When the elbow is Joints and flexed, pronation is rotation of the forearm movements so that the palm is down, and supination is rotation of the fore- arm so that the palm faces up Eversion is turning the foot so that the plantar surface (bottom of the foot) faces laterally  Inversion is turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces medially.   Rotation is the turning of a structure around its long axis, as in shaking the head “no.” Rotation of the arm can best be demonstrated with the elbow flexed so that rotation is not confused with supination and pronation of the forearm. With the elbow flexed, medial rotation of the Joints and arm brings the forearm against the anterior surface of the abdomen, and lateral rotation movements moves it away from the body.  Circumduction occurs at freely movable joints, such as the shoulder. In circumduction, the arm moves so that it traces a cone where the shoulder joint is at the cone’s apex   Protraction is a movement in which a structure, such as the mandible, glides anteriorly. In retraction the structure glides posteriorly. Elevation is movement of a structure in a superior direction. Joints and  Closing the mouth involves elevation of the mandible. movements Depression is movement of a structure in an inferior direction. Opening the mouth involves depression of the mandible. Excursion is movement of a structure to one side, as in moving the mandible from side to side.  Opposition is a movement unique to the thumb and little finger. It occurs when the tips of the thumb and little finger are brought toward each other across the palm of the hand. The thumb can also oppose the other digits. Joints and Reposition returns the digits to the anatomical position. movements Most movements that occur in the course of normal activities are combinations of movements. A complex movement can be described by naming the individual movements involved.  Sprain results the bones of a joint are forcefully pulled apart and the ligaments around the joint are pulled or torn. Joints and A separation exists when the bones remain apart after injury to a joint. movements A dislocation is when the end of one bone is pulled out of the socket in a ball-and-socket, ellipsoid, or pivot joint. Hyperextension is usually defined as an abnormal, forced extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion. If a person falls and attempts to break the fall by putting out a hand, the force of the fall directed into the hand and wrist may cause hyperextension of the wrist, which may result in sprained joints or broken bones. Hyperextension is the normal movement of a structure into the space posterior to the anatomical position. BONE REPAIR  https://www.facebook.com/reel/433607573033181https://www.fac ebook.com/reel/8256660427727681  https://www.facebook.com/reel/1250867289661284  https://www.facebook.com/reel/795645942637089 Goodenough J., et.al., (2014). Biology of humans: Concept, applications, and  issues. 5th Ed. Massachusetts: Pearson Education  Guyton, AC. & Hall JE. (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th Ed.  Pennsylvania: Elsevier Saunders.  Jabbar, A. (2017). Introduction to human physiology. Texas: Open Stax.  Masa, RZ (2022) LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)in General Physiology  VanPutte, C. (2016). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy physiology. Academia.  https://www.academia.edu/29647351/Seeleys_Essentials_of_Anatomy_  Physiology_Van_Putte_Cinnamon_SRG?auto=download