Afrikan-American History to 1865 Unit 1 PDF

AFRIKAN- AMERICAN HISTORY TO 1865 UNIT1 THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE  BASICS Late 15th century to the late 19th century. Most Afrikans came from 1 of 6 regions. ◦ Senegambia ◦ Sierra Leone/Windward Coast ◦ The Gold Coast ◦ Bight of Benin ◦ Bight of Biafra ◦ West/Central Africa (Kongo and Ango...

AFRIKAN- AMERICAN HISTORY TO 1865 UNIT1 THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE  BASICS Late 15th century to the late 19th century. Most Afrikans came from 1 of 6 regions. ◦ Senegambia ◦ Sierra Leone/Windward Coast ◦ The Gold Coast ◦ Bight of Benin ◦ Bight of Biafra ◦ West/Central Africa (Kongo and Angola) Estimated 12.4M Afrikans trafficked through Middle Passage. MIDDLE PASSAGE Middle Passage was 2nd leg of Triangular Trade (3 legs) ◦ 1st leg-Brought textiles, iron, alcohol, firearms, and gunpowder. ◦ 2nd leg-Cargo exchanged for humans. ◦ 3rd leg-Ships sailed to the Americas. ◦ Humans exchanged for goods like cotton, tobacco, Estimated 2M Afrikans died during Middle Passage. ◦ 5% of Afrikans brought to United States ◦ 41% of Afrikans brought to Brazil ◦ Remainder scattered across Central American and Caribbean Islands AFRIKANS SOLD OTHER AFRIKANS ◦ Prisoners of war from other African tribes ◦ Criminals (very few) ◦ Poor members of society who were often traded to pay off debt Being a prisoner of war, or a poor member of a society traded for goods is not the same thing as being held in intergenerational, hereditary, and chattel slavery that meant generations after you would all be born into bondage. ◦ That is something unique to the experience of slavery in the Americas. Slavery- is the permanent, violent, and personal domination of alienated and generally dishonored persons. LOOSE PACK VS. TIGHT PACK LIFE ON A SLAVE SHIP LIFE ON A SLAVE SHIP The conditions were horrific. ◦ People were packed by the hundreds alongside one another. ◦ chained down- unable to move. ◦ Forced to relieve themselves in the same places where they slept, sat, and ate. ◦ Stench from the bottom of the ship (little ventilation) was unbearable. Disease was rampant. ◦ Yellow fever ◦ Malaria ◦ Smallpox ◦ Dysentery Violence ◦ Women sexually assaulted ◦ Captives tortured RESISTANCE Did not passively accept conditions thrown upon them. *all attempts to reclaim some sense of agency and control in inconceivable circumstances. ◦ Individual ◦ Refusing to eat ◦ Jumping overboard ◦ Afrikans represented money; exerted control over their own fates, and took money away from Europeans. ◦ Some held spiritual beliefs that suggested if they could get into the water, it’d carry them home. Enslavers response… ◦ Enslavers put nets on side of the boats; ◦ Speculum orum-screw-like device that forces mouth open and allowed the resistant African to be force-fed. It was not uncommon for this device to break someone’s teeth, displace their jaw, or rip their mouth apart. ◦ placing hot coals on a person’s lips until they opened their mouths. ◦ Thumb-screws, a device in which a victim’s fingers or toes were placed in a vise, and slowly crushed until they complied. *Decision to stay alive also considered an act of Resistance. 1700-1808 Most destructive time of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. ◦ 2/3 (66%) of the total of enslaved Africans were trafficked out of Africa and to the Americas during this period. ◦ 64 of every 100 Afrikans survived the trip to the coast; i.e. 64% ◦ 48 of the surviving 64 Afrikans survived the Middle Passage; i.e. 75% (additional 25% died) ENSLVAVED VS SLAVES Enslaved person-centers the personhood of the individual and emphasizes that slavery is a condition that was involuntarily imposed on someone, rather than being an inherent condition to someone’s existence. ◦ What do you think? ROYAL AFRICAN COMPANY Maintained a monopoly on all English trade to Africa following its inception (1672). ◦ 1675 to 1725-most active years of the Royal African Company ◦ Continued to play an active role in the first several decades of the eighteenth century-- ‘free trade’ era. South Carolina ◦ 1787-South Carolina prohibited the African slave trade. ◦ 1803-reopened the transatlantic slave trade; remained open until 1808 ◦ 1808-Federal prohibition of the Atlantic Slave Trade went into effect. ◦ Between 1803 and 1808, 35k enslaved people were brought to South Carolina-more than 2x as many as in any similar period in its history as a colony or state). ◦ Charleston was the point of entry for approximately 40% of the enslaved Africans who were brought to North America through the middle passage; Known as African-American’s Ellis Island, ◦ Difference is that one group came here via their own free will and one group did not. ◦ 1808-The federal government ended the international slave trade in 1808; British in 1807. END OF THE SLAVE TRADE Traders from both nations continued illegally trafficking captive Africans for years. ◦ And while the international slave trade was abolished in the United States (1808), the domestic slave trade would continue, and wouldn’t end until America’s most deadly war- Civil War (1861-1865). ◦ In Britain, slavery was officially abolished in 1833. Spanish and Brazilian traders continued trafficking captive Africans for another half century. ◦ Brazil was the final country in the Western world to abolish slavery (1888). ◦ (1817) Spain signed treaty with Britain to end slave trade in 1820 ◦ (1873) Slavery abolished in Puerto Rico-but slaves had to purchase their freedom, or work 3 more years. ◦ (1886) Slavery abolished in CUba MERCANTALISM -A system in which home countries, or "mother" countries, in Western Europe established extensions of themselves in far off places around the world to produce highly sought-after raw materials. ◦ One of the basic premises is that exports must always be greater than imports to make a profit. ◦ Must consider how to maximize their profit-one of the ways to do that is to minimize production costs. Q: How do you reduce production costs when those costs rely almost entirely on manual labor? A: Have laborers who you didn’t pay---SLAVERY Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón 1526-Founded San Miguel De Gualdape ◦ Currently state of South Carolina ◦ Had an unknown number of enslaved Afrikans. Colony was a failure. ◦ Afrikans fled to Guale Indians. POINT COMFORT, VIRGINIA 1619:20-30 Afrikans arrived. ◦ Thought to be the origins of chattel slavery in the United States; because colony would become United States. ◦ Afrikans became instrumental to the success of the Jamestown colony; succeeded where previous colonies failed. ◦ Afrikan captives already had significant contact with Europeans--particularly those from Spain and Portugal-called Atlantic Creoles. Atlantic Creoles ◦ They were versed in many languages ◦ Had some familiarity with Christianity ◦ Worked alongside white indentured servants. ◦ Europeans did attempt to utilize other sources of labor before turning to enslaved Afrikans. INDENTURED SERVITUDE Posed issues that prevented colonists from extracting long term systematic labor from them. ◦ 1) European indentured servants could only legally be indentured for a contracted period of time;4-7 years. When contracts expired, new indentured laborers had to be found and trained, which resulted in inconsistent levels of production. ◦ 2) European indentured servants were white. ◦ And Europeans viewed other Europeans as fully human. Some Europeans were reticent to discipline other Europeans with the same harsh punishments that Africans received. ◦ Evidence suggests that, when mixed groups of African and European servants ran away, the Africans within the group would receive the harshest punishment. ◦ Settlers also attempted to enslave indigenous people but this didn’t satisfy their labor needs. NATIVE GROUPS Europeans did not immediately give up on indigenous labor, ongoing conflict with Native Americans made imported Africans a much more desirable source of labor. ◦ Slavery had not yet been defined, and codified by law. EMERGENCE OF A SLAVE SOCIETY Uniform policies had to be established in order to clearly demarcate the social and political hierarchy. ◦ Antonio (Anthony) Johnson, a man who lived in captivity, and eventually worked his way out of bondage, illustrates some of the possibilities for Black people in Jamestown, Virginia before blanketed restrictions were placed on them. ◦ While not representative of all free black people at this time… ◦ 1) Helpful in understanding the process by which slavery evolved into something more concrete. ANTHONY JOHNSON *Antonio anglicized to “Anthony.” 1621-Powhatan launched an attack on the Bennett family plantation. ◦ Antonio was owned by the Bennett's and was one of the few survivors. ◦ Later commended for his “hard labor and known service.” ◦ The Bennett's granted Antonio permission to farm independently on his own land even though he was still enslaved. ◦ He was also allowed to get married, which he did, to a woman named Mary, and to baptize their children. ◦ Johnson and his family became free. ◦ Unclear how, which reflects the scarcity of documentation that plagues scholars of early African American history. ◦ Johnson’s land holdings and property recognized as legitimate. ◦ Lost much of his home in a fire, the county court forgave his taxes. ◦ Defended his ownership of an enslaved Afrikan in court; named John Casor ANTHONY JOHNSON Casor wasn’t an indentured servant. ◦ Alleged that Johnson had violated an indenture contract between the two, ◦ Johnson claimed that he’d actually purchased Casor as an enslaved worker. *White people use this example as evidence that blacks were involved in the slave trade, but argument ignores the nuances of discussion. This point is significant because, ◦ Johnson himself exemplified the shift between race and enslavement as a social status. ◦ After Johnson died, court ruled he was “a negro, and by consequence, an alien.” ◦ Family’s land was seized. ◦ 1640-1660, the rules around who could or could not be enslaved became more formalized by the legal system. JOHN PUNCH 1640: 3 indentured servants, 2 white, and 1 black, upset about harsh treatment, escaped from Hugh Gwyn's plantation. ◦ Once in Maryland, they were caught, and were made to stand trial in court. ◦ 2 whites received thirty lashes, an additional year indentured to Gwyn, and three additional years of manual labor in service to the colony. ◦ John Punch sentenced to serve for the rest of his life as a laborer. ◦ Planters in Virginia enacted measures that would expressly establish the connections between race and social status. 1662: Virginia General Assembly adopted the rule of "partus sequitur ventrem.” ◦ The rule stated that the mother'srace would determine a child's slave or free status. PARTUS SEQUITUR VENTREM 1662: Virginia General Assembly ◦ The rule stated that the mother’s race would determine a child's slave or free status. ◦ This policy would ensure that there would be no question of the status of black women's children-even if the father happened to be white. ◦ Set a precedent for how black women's bodies could be used. These legal codifications were often justified using religious arguments. ◦ Many Christians often equated darkness, or Blackness with sin; savages, incapable of governing themselves. ◦ Blacks needed white rule in order to be accepted by Christ; God intended for white men to rule over black men. ◦ Used to justify the forced labor, subjugation, and violence Black people experienced at the hands of their enslavers. DEVELOPMENT OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery developed and changed over the course of decades. ◦ Increasingly codified in the law; more central to the economic infrastructure. Reviewing the court cases of early Africans in the Americas provides an outlook on the specific rights and liberties denied to Africans compared to the land- owning white men who had a voice in early colonial society. ELIZABETH KEY One of few enslaved people to gain freedom through colonial legal system. ◦ Born in Warwick County, Virginia 1630 ◦ Biracial ◦ Likely no difference between being labelled a “negro” and being labelled a “slave.” ◦ Father was a White Englishman named Thomas Key; arrived in Virginia (1616). ◦ Evidence suggests he had emotional attachment to his daughter; attempted to ensure Elizabeth was well provided for. ◦ Married to another woman, while he was involved with Marth (Elizabeth’s mother). ◦ As a Black child born out of wedlock, and of an enslaved woman, she was expected to work as an indentured servant until she was a teenager. ◦ Her father made an agreement with Humphrey Higginson (wealthy settler) ◦ Higginson transferred possession of her to a farmer, named John Mottrom. ◦ Supposed to be under Higginson’s care for nine years-stipulation also transferred to Mottrom. ELIZABETH KEY Father died soon after making the initial agreement. Higginson left for England and never returned ◦ Elizabeth was vulnerable; black teenager with no advocates; not only was she bartered into servitude by her father, and the original terms of the agreement weren’t honored. Elizabeth ended up working for John Mottrom ten additional years. ◦ Well past the time laid out in the original agreement. ◦ Elizabeth still built as much of a life for herself as possible. ◦ She started a relationship with a White indentured servant named William Grinstead; had a child (John). ◦ Mottrom dies (1655) ◦ Heirs of his estate reclassified Elizabeth and her son from indentured servants to slaves. ELIZABETH KEY She fought this. ◦ With William Grinstead, now a lawyer, she took Mottrom’s family to the court. ◦ Mottrom’s family was taking advantage of the fact that Elizabeth was black, and considered illegitimate because her parents were unmarried; argued that she was a slave-for-life, and already was enslaved. Elizabeth Key argued… ◦ Her father was white (free) and she should be free because of her paternal lineage. ◦ She was baptized Christian and that she could not be enslaved as a result of her Christian faith. ◦ Laws barring Christianity from keeping one from being a slave started being passed in the 1660’s. ◦ Christian identity was assumed for English indentured servants that sued for their freedom; didn’t have to argue for parentage or faith because they were white. ◦ Husband and lawyer William Grinstead ◦ Should have been free in the first place because original agreement was for indentured servant for a limited time, and that time had passed. ELIZABETH KEY Court ruled in her favor. ◦ Her and her son were freed. ◦ Lost years of her life because she was subjected to system that was designed to protect the practice of holding blacks as property. ◦ White indentured servants under similar circumstances would not be required to through all this. ◦ Many subject to similar injustices during this time, actually did not receive their freedom– whether they made it to court or not. ◦ Elizabeth was lucky; if only lucky people win in the legal system… then how just is the system in the first place? ◦ WE ARE STILL HAVING THESE CONVERSATIONS TODAY!!! NATCHEZ INDIAN REVOLT NATCHEZ INDIAN REVOLT 1729-against the French. Brought the first African slaves to Natchez to cultivate tobacco. Their aggression initially took the form of resistance on slave ships. ◦ 1997 Amistad. The Natchez Indians helped start resistance. ◦ The French soon recognized contact between the enslaved and the Natchez Indians ◦ Extended their cruelty to the Native Americans ◦ Cruelty (with pro-British leanings) of some tribal leaders and land-grab by the French commander at Fort Rosalie, moved Natchez to act. NATCHEZ INDIAN REVOLT Natchez Indians recruited several enslaved individuals ◦ Promising them freedom, and staged a revolt against the French in 1729. ◦ 230 people killed. French retaliated ◦ Using their allies from other tribes to punish the Natchez. ◦ The Natchez Indians ultimately lost the war; many sold into slavery in the Caribbean; others joined other tribes. NATCHEZ INDIAN REVOLT 1731-2ND revolt ◦ A number of enslaved Africans who had participated in the revolt were involved in a conspiracy to kill the French and take the colony. ◦ The governor of Louisiana heard rumors -dismissed them even after enslaved woman hinted at a rebellion to a French soldier. ◦ Samba Bambara-slave/officer/interpreter of Antoine Le Page du Pratz ◦ Was the mastermind; involved in a rebellion back in his homeland and was sentenced to life in bondage. ◦ Also tried to instigate a revolt on the slave ship; As punishment for his role, he was placed in irons. The French ruled the Natchez until 1763 ◦ Area was surrendered to the British and became part of British West Florida. MAKING SLAVERY, MAKING RACE RACE AND SLAVERY Race not just a social construction-also a historical construction ◦ Exists on a contested terrain in which people struggle to control their destiny ◦ Difficulty in embracing new understanding of race based on… ◦ Failure to explain how it is continually defined… ◦ Who does the defining… ◦ Why? Although slavery is imposed and maintained through violence… ◦ Slavery is a negotiated relationship. ◦ Struggle to understand slavery not a result of an overestimated of slave master, or underestimation of power of the slave, but from misconstruing of limitations of humanity placed on both. ◦ Masters held all the good cards, but slaves had cards of their own. SLAVERY AS NEGOTIATION 1. Master and slave had to concede to the legitimacy of the other. ◦ Difficult for each to acknowledge; masters presumed absolute power-slaves never relinquished right to control their own destiny. ◦ Interconnections forced coexistence that created cooperation and contestation. 2. Because circumstances of contestation and cooperation continually changed- slavery did too. ◦ Refusal of either to concede meant that slavery was always unstable-no bargain lasted long; power moved back and forth-slavery had to be renegotiated; slavery never made- always remade. SLAVE LABOR AND FREE LABOR Historians have frozen their subject (slavery) in time. ◦ Captured essential aspects of chattel slavery, but failed to recognized the dynamics that change slaves lives from time to time, and place to place. ◦ Reified and reinforced static view of masters power and slaves acceptance by removing from conversation the contingencies in which their power rested; slaves always renegotiated the small spaces given them. ◦ Close examination of particulars of human condition always displaces generalities by exposing contradictions in tropes that guide study of slavery in America. 1. Afrikan to Creole 2. Slave to free 3. Sundown to sunup 4. White over black SLAVE LABOR AND FREE LABOR Binary opposites fit nicely into the formulation of history as written- ◦ BUT does very little to capture the messiness of history as lived ◦ Flow from one position to the next not always clean; sometimes crossed lines and not always in same direction. ◦ Ex…..Racial domination took many forms ◦ At times whites and blacks met as equals and stood together against common enemies ◦ On rare occasions, slaves enjoyed upper hand Much of slaves lives took shape beyond masters view, created their own world on their own. SLAVE LABOR AND FREE LABOR Slavery in NW did have its origins in conspiracy to dishonor, shame, brutalize, and reduce slaves to being sub-human. ◦ ALTHOUGH IT DID ALL THOSE THINGS IF slavery made race, its larger purpose was to make class. ◦ Mystified by the fact that the two were made simultaneously by the same process. Since labor defined slaves lives, when, where, and how determined the course of their lives. ◦ History of black people cannot be reduced to it. SLAVE LABOR AND FREE LABOR Stolen moments-in the field, the dark, holidays granted by masters, etc. ◦ Slaves expressed themselves in song, dance, prayer, and fables through which they understood their world and plotted to make a better one. ◦ Dismissing it as escapism and mindless mimicry-underestimates oppositional content of slave culture. ◦ Struggle to give meaning to their music, dance, and devotions were no less political than their struggle over work. Study of workplace offers point of entry to slave 1. Organization 2. Domestic arrangements 3. Religious beliefs 4. Medical practice 5. Music 6. Cuisine 7. Linguistic style 8. Etc. SLAVE LABOR AND FREE LABOR Slave life differed from place to place and time to time just like any other occupation. Slavery’s differing development depended on… 1. Terrain 2. Richness of soil 3. Availability of markets 4. Demographic balance between white and black 5. Free and slave 6. Men and women 7. Origins of slaves, and slave owners TWO MARKETS OF SLAVERY Societies with slaves 1. Appears milder-slave owners not driven by wealth; less reason to press slaves to the brink. 2. Slaveholdings generally small; marginal to the production process; one form of labor among many 3. Line between free/slave more fluid 4. Manumission is possible; occasionally encouraged 5. Master-slave relationship not presumed to be the standard BUT ◦ Slavers could act with extreme brutality because slaves were not key to finances. ◦ Sometimes that was the standard of treating all subordinates whether slaves, indentured servants, debtors, etc… TWO MARKETS OF SLAVERY Slave society 1. Slavery central to economy 2. Master-slave relationship provided model for all relationships 3. Slavers constitute majority of ruling class; nearly everyone aims to enter ruling class; ◦ Occasionally former-slaves rose to slave-ruling ranks; carried stigma of bondage in their lineage 4. Right to enter slave-owning class was rarely denied. MOVEMENT FROM ONE TO THE OTHER Transformation generally turned on discovery of a commodity that would command an international market; i.e. gold, or tobacco. ◦ Slaveholders capitalized production and monopolized resources. ◦ Pushed other classes to periphery. ◦ Slave class increased; generally direct importation from Afrika. ◦ Afrikans became majority of laboring (slave) class; sometimes majority of population ◦ All other forms of labor declined; small farmers and wage laborers marginalized MOVEMENT FROM ONE TO THE OTHER In absence of competition, slaveowners secured their rule through control of the state. ◦ Enacted or reinvigorated slaves codes (laws) investing themselves with near-total power over slaves. ◦ Reduced latitudes formerly enjoyed by slaves; had to defer to their owner at all times w/o question. ◦ Narrowed slaves access to freedom; permeable barriers became impenetrable ◦ Elaborated logic of subordination; rule of nature, or “god.” Racial ideologies ◦ Provided explanation for racial dominance in NW ◦ Even in societies where masters and slaves had same origin, domination still constructed in racial terms. MOVEMENT FROM ONE TO THE OTHER Elements of processes by which societies with slaves became slave societies always the same-BUT the process were always different; only thing that was common across the board was the brutality. ◦ Some transitioned so rapidly; previous experience left no mark. ◦ Others moved slowly and imperfectly, backtracking several times; process more circular than linear. ◦ Some never completed transition. ◦ Some hardly began it. ◦ Some slave societies did not stay slave societies. ◦ Some slave societies became societies with slaves. DIFFERENT VIEWS ON CAUSE OF CHANGE Discovery and development of a staple crop did NOT in and of itself produce a slave society. ◦ Discovery of staple crops predated the emergence of slave societies in some places. ◦ Once established some slave societies outlasted their reason d’etre (purpose) ◦ Salable commodity was necessary condition, but not sufficient- ◦ Slaveowners seizure of power was most critical event in transformation of society with slaves to slave society. EVOLUTION OF SLAVERY IN NW 1. Driving force was the changing nature of production. ◦ Alterations in slaveholders demands and slaves’ expectations opened the door to shifts in power ◦ By definition, these moments… 1. Times of great stress 2. Violence the maintained slavery resurfaced Struggle over labor informed all other conflicts between master/slave. ◦ Understanding opens possibility of integrating experience of slavery into the experiences of working class. ◦ Provides lens into agency within slavery and helps understand how resistance the fell short of revolutions could be effective. CONFLICT BETWEEN SLAVE/MASTER Took many forms… 1. Organization of labor 2. Hours and pace of work 3. Sexual division of labor 4. Composition of the labor force Weapons of workers/slaves ◦ Feigning ignorance ◦ Slowing the line (production) ◦ Minimizing the stint (work period) ◦ Breaking tools ◦ Disappearing at critical moments ◦ Direct/violent confrontation EVOLUTION OF SLAVERY IN NW 2. Democratic revolutions of late 18th century. ◦ Declaration of Independence ◦ Declaration of the Rights of Man ◦ Haitian Revolution-undermined ideological foundations slavery rested on. ◦ All provided slaves leverage to contest slave owners power. ◦ Impact was not uniform; some ◦ Toppled slavery ◦ Strengthened it ◦ Pulled simultaneously in both direction GENERATIONS OF SLAVERY 1. Charter Generations ◦ First arrivals, their children, in some cases-grandchildren 2. Plantation Generations ◦ Forced to grow the staples 3. Revolutionary Generations ◦ Grasped the promise of freedom and faced a resurgent slave regime SLAVE SOCIETIES Successors to Atlantic Creole’s life was very different. ◦ Worked harder and died earlier ◦ Family life was shortened-few claimed ties of blood or marriage ◦ Knew very little of Christianity (wanted) and European jurisprudence ◦ Very few opportunities to participate in economy independently ◦ Very rarely accumulated property ◦ Lived country side on vast land ◦ Few ever escaped slavery SLAVE SOCIETIES Names(given) ◦ Reflected contempt ◦ European diminutive ◦ To emphasize inferiority, would be given names like Bossy, Jumper, etc. (more akin to animals) ◦ Names of deities or great people (Hercules, Cato); more insignificant, the greater the name. Growth of plantation ◦ Main source of degradation of black life. ◦ Social organization in which production controlled by class of men with insatiable appetite for labor. ◦ Planters became owners-transformed society with slaves into a slave society. ◦ Meaning of “race” was transformed; color invested with status that didn’t exist before. SLAVE SOCIETIES Planters ◦ Created new classes, remade social relations, and made new commercial centers; wealth/power. ◦ Had power of state, unprecedented capital, chased away small farmers. ◦ Had lands worked by indigenous peoples, or Afrikans to work on sugar plantations. ◦ Cared little about origins, color/nationality of those who worked for them. ◦ New World-Native Americans and Afrikans were laborers of choice ◦ When disease and conquest killed off natives, plantation slavery became Afrikan slavery; “negro” and “slave” became synonymous. SLAVE SOCIETIES Distinguishing mark was the social order ◦ Planters had complete rule; dominated all social institutions associated with authority; made and enforced laws ◦ Plantations rested on force; violence was inherent, systematic, and relentless; plantation slavery would not survive w/o it; had to have monopoly on firepower and willingness to use it. ◦ Plantation slavery could not rest on violence/force alone. Laws ◦ Unspoken custom or written law; ideologies stood behind laws. ◦ Planters saw themselves as metaphorical fathers ◦ Slaves extensions in owners estate; as fathers had rights over intimate affairs, expected obedience due to a father (permanent childhood) SLAVE SOCIETIES Race ◦ Because slavery was color-coded, racial ideology justified slavery. ◦ Foundation on which the social order existed; became entwined with white supremacy; ◦ Demoted blacks to childhood and savagery Interplay between master and slave ◦ Slaves understood these ideologies and used them on their own behalf. ◦ Shows of deference were oftentimes rewarded. ◦ Masters coaxed/threatened slaves to produce more; promises of easier times. ◦ Dynamics in society with slaves and slave societies were same except in latter, operated from a greater disadvantage. SLAVE SOCIETIES Development changed Afrika as well… ◦ Slaving became activity of ambitious rulers; dynasties built of slaving proceeds ◦ Asante, Dahomey, and Oyo extended reach to slave coast. ◦ New states arose as influence pushed deeper into interior of Afrika. ◦ Character of those transported changed ◦ Criminals, political prisoners, religious heretics, debtors prominent among societies with slaves ◦ Slave society-in wrong place at the wrong time. ◦ Kidnappers sometimes became kidnapped ◦ Those without large lineage, weaker villages, and weaker kingdoms were hard hit. SLAVE SOCIETIES Afrikan slave raiders very selective ◦ While rich/poor all were enslaved, very selective in terms of sex ◦ Men too dangerous to keep; preferred women 1. Could be incorporated into the household 2. Could work as farm laborers or domestic (as well as their children) ◦ Occasionally gained full citizenship because accumulating wives and dependents added to a man’s prestige. ◦ Men became prime candidates for deportation (ages 10-25) ◦ Beyond preferences for adult men, all were fair game. SLAVE SOCIETIES Atlantic commerce linked Afrika to specific regions in Americas ◦ West Central Afrika-Brazil ◦ Bight of Biafra-British Caribbean ◦ Senegambia-French Caribbean Europeans had specific requests for certain peoples-hard to accommodate 1. Ethnic composition of slaves had little relationship to location where they were held. 2. Both internal and transatlantic trade changed over time-patchwork of Afrikans from all over SLAVE SOCIETIES (Atlantic Creoles vs. Afrikan interior) ◦ Cosmopolitans vs. provincials ◦ World shaped by commercial opportunity vs. strange inhospitable place ◦ Broad connections in Atlantic vs. village/clan roots ◦ Fabricated lineages vs. long ancestral histories ◦ Religion vs faith with ancestors (fused sacred and secular) ◦ Immigrant experience vs. not ordinary immigration (extraordinary coercion, deadly and traumatic); more than 1/10 Afrikans died during middle passage Afrikan from interior ◦ Tied to land as farmers/herdsmen ◦ Lacked linguistic and cultural diversity SLAVE SOCIETIES Identity ◦ Did not think of themselves as Afrikans; allegiance was to family, clan, etc. ◦ Shaped, but not determined by slavery-identities not from birthplace; from those they associated with ◦ Identity could be worn or discarded; identities they created had little to do with Afrika ◦ Did not assimilate ◦ Environment was so diverse, no single identity or idea to assimilate to.