Edexcel A Level Geography: Globalisation and Migration Notes PDF

Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Edexcel A Level Geography Your notes Globalisation & Migration Contents Globalisation & Migration Causes of Migration Consequances of International Migration...

Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Edexcel A Level Geography Your notes Globalisation & Migration Contents Globalisation & Migration Causes of Migration Consequances of International Migration Page 1 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Globalisation & Migration Your notes Changing Pattern of Demand for Labour Defining and understanding globalisation Globalisation is a complex process that has developed over time Globalisation refers to the way in which people and places around the world are becoming more closely linked It has different economic, social, cultural and political dimensions: Food Work Culture Money Migration Trade Communication Travel Poverty etc. Globalisation is nothing new, with people and places having past connections: Trade - the Silk Road trade routes covered over 6400 km across Asia to Europe from the 2nd century BCE until the mid-15th century. These routes were central to economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the East and West Colonialism - during the 19th century, the British Empire controlled 25% of the world's peoples Globalisation has been responsible for changes in: Global transport systems Global economic systems Patterns of demand for labour Rural-urban migration within countries International migration Page 2 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Exploitation of global resources and rise of the transnational corporations (TNCs) Global finance Your notes Global communications The level of globalisation can be measured: Economic - exports and imports as a proportion of GDP Social - internet users as a proportion of the population Political - membership of international organisations Physical - availability of resources for exploitation (oil, wood, coal, gold, cotton etc.) Globalisation has lengthened (distance) connections between people and places and those connections have become deeper and more commonplace Technology has played a key role in driving changes and has transformed lives on every continent, particularly since 2000 Although globalisation has benefited billions of people, concerns remain that it has changed some people’s lives for the worse Globalisation and migration Significant changes in the global economic system have increased disparities of wealth between different areas of the world This has altered patterns of worker demand and increased migration within (internal) and between (international) countries, with people seeking a better way of life Shifts in manufacturing jobs from highly developed, high wage paying, economies (HDE) to less developed, lower wage paying economies (LDE), such as Mexico, parts of the EU etc, increased the demand for regionalised manufacturing workers Rapid industrialisation of countries such as China and India have created a high demand for workers and has been met, in part, by rural-urban migration Capital investments in emerging market economies (EME) and LDEs has created demand for workers in construction and services, which drives international migration Increases in international trade has resulted in the same companies (TNCs and MNCs) operating in more than one country and employing international corporate management Migration has led to increased remittances being sent nationally and internationally Rural-urban migration - push/pull Globalisation has encouraged internal migration through: Page 3 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Mechanisation of agricultural systems creating a loss of jobs - push factor Landgrabs by government and agribusinesses forcing people out of their homes and jobs - push Your notes factor but also a pull for investors Investments in trade - imports and exports increasing the opportunities of jobs - pull factor Internal migration gives rise to a national core-periphery system developing, which is strengthened over time The periphery is considered areas outside of core economic regions However, this leads to uneven economic growth; where one 'core' region has a greater 'pull' than another cores Collectively the flows of investment, resource allocation, and people is known as the 'backwash effect' This is where people, investments and resources are re-directed from the periphery to core regions Typically, this is the rural-urban migration pattern, but can be urban to urban or rural to rural, it just depends on the dominance (pull) of one 'core' over another Rapid industrialisation occurred in China after the government created Special Economic Zones (SEZ) during the 1980s These policies allowed for foreign investment into 'special zones' that are separated areas, managed by a single administration and with its own regulations As a result, more than 200 million rural migrants now work in China's main cities such as Shanghai and Shenzhen with around 20 million people arriving in cities each year Over the next decade, an estimated 60% of Chinese people will live in urban areas International migration Most international migration is to highly developed economies (HDE) Half of all international migrations are to one of 10 countries The US has more international migrants than any other at 51 million in 2020 Germany has the second largest with approximately 15.8 million and Saudi Arabia is third with 13.5 million Sometimes the core-periphery process occurs at a larger, spatial scale such as the EU-Schengen agreement In 1995, international borders within most EU countries were removed and allowed for the free movement of people and goods within the EU Page 4 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Eastern European countries joined in 2007 Benefits include the ability to move from one EU country to another without checks Your notes Arguments raised against the agreement is the number of migrants that entered the EU (e.g. Syria) as refugees and then have access to the rest of the EU with no border controls Examiner Tips and Tricks The EU Schengen Agreement is different to the EUs right of free movement for EU citizens, make sure you do not confuse them. Variation in Migration Approximately 3% of the world’s population live outside their country of birth (approx. 281 million people), of which 66% are economic migrants Female migration has steadily increased (50%), with women making up the majority of contract workers in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia Until the 1990s the majority of international migration was mainly to HDEs such as the UK and the USA However, there is a rise to certain cities of developing countries (Mumbai, India etc.), which have become major hubs for global immigration The level of international migration varies between countries due to differing migration policies and levels of global economic engagement Singapore encourages international migration Australia and New Zealand have barriers in place Some countries attract few migrants due to civil unrest or lack of development e.g., Eritrea, South Sudan etc. Inward investment by TNCs can depend on the ease by which a company can transfer its senior management staff into a particular nation Spatially there is an increase in migration, impacting both the country of origin and destination, with many new migration streams/routes being developed Changes in International Migration Environmental, economic and political events affect both the source areas (country of origin) of many migrants and their destinations Page 5 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Resulting in flows of voluntary economic migrants and involuntary or forced refugees and asylum seekers Your notes Temporary movement, such as tourism, is not counted as migration International migration occurs for different reasons Voluntary migrants are often economic migrants seeking better jobs and standard of living Other migrants feel as though they have no choice but to leave their country of origin through political change Some flee across borders because they fear death or persecution from war, natural disasters, religious or political persecution They apply for ‘asylum’ in a host country and whilst the application is being considered they are known as asylum seekers If their application is successful, they may be granted temporary or permanent residency. Legally they now become refugees Environmental changes such as global warming force some people to leave their homes and even countries Low-lying Pacific Islands such as Kiribati and Tuvalu are sinking due to sea level rise and residents are migrating to New Zealand and Australia Page 6 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Your notes Top ten destinations and origins of international migrants in 2020 (in millions) Examiner Tips and Tricks Be clear on the difference between the types of migrants. In the media, migrants are often lumped together as one type but it’s important that you can make a distinction between voluntary migrants and those who feel they have to leave for fear of their life. The push-pull model of migration (from a sociologist called Lee) describes the reasons why international migration occurs and the processes migrants go through on their journey Page 7 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Your notes Lee’s Push-Pull Model of Migration The model shows that places of origin have both positive reasons to stay and negative reasons to leave (push factors) If the negatives outnumber the positives people might decide to migrate The destination country also has positives (pull factors) and negatives The more positives there are, the more attraction it has for migrants Migrants leave because of both push and pull factors When deciding whether to leave, and then on their journey, migrants face various challenges (intervening obstacles) and processes Costs of travel Family pressure to stay Physical barriers such as distance, seas and mountains Human traffickers and smugglers Difficulty with new languages and filling out paperwork Government policy on immigration Page 8 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Border controls These obstacles and processes mean that migration happens in steps Your notes Migrants may make several smaller journeys and stay in temporary accommodation before they reach their final destination Globalisation has increased the movement of migrants around the world and is an important flow within the global economy In 1970 approximately 90 million people were living in a country they weren’t born in In 1990 that figure had increased to approximately 153 million In 2020 it was estimated to be 281 million Page 9 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Causes of Migration Your notes Causes of Migration Most migrants move for work; known as economic migrants Others move to re-join family members, as part of the diaspora growth Post-colonial migrant flows to the UK when former colonies became part of the Commonwealth After the second World War, many countries had labour shortages and needed to rebuild their economies The 1948 British Nationality Act, gave people from UK colonies, the right to live and work in Britain Job vacancies in the UK offered an opportunity to people in Caribbean countries, who were also struggling economically post-war Many of those who came, became manual workers, drivers, cleaners, and nurses in the newly- established NHS and known as the Windrush Generation International migrants are not always the poorest, as money is needed to make a journey (even human trafficking has costs to the migrant) There are other causes of migration, including displacement of refugees due to conflict and poverty in countries of origin Types of Migrants Definition Internal External Voluntary The individual or household has a Rural to urban for jobs West Indians to the UK free choice about whether to move or not Urban to rural British doctors to the USA retirement Forced Occurs when the individual or British inner city slum African slaves to America - household has little or no choice clearance Atlantic slave trade but to move Amerindians into War - 8.1 million refugees rainforest reserves were recorded leaving Ukraine in 2022 Page 10 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Impelled or This may be due to environmental Natural disasters – Mt Muslims and Hindu in India Political or human factors Pinatubo, Philippines Your notes Forced migration still occurs today - Syrian refugee crisis, Ukrainians forced to flee from Russian invasion etc. Counter-migration, in which governments detain migrants who enter or attempt to enter their countries illegally and return the migrants to their home countries Impelled migration as a result of natural disasters has unexpected consequences Many Montserratians fled to the United States when Plymouth was destroyed in 1995 and were given ‘temporary protected’ immigration status The U.S. government told Montserratian refugees to leave in 2005 - not because the volcanic crisis was over or because the housing crisis caused by the eruption was solved Rather, the U.S. government expected the volcanic crisis to last at least 10 more years; so, the Montserratians no longer qualified as ‘temporary’ refugees Economic Theory & Migration There are five economic theories for migration: Five Economic Theories of Migration Theory Explanation Example Neoclassical Wage differences pull or push people from low- Internal migration in economic theory wage regions to higher-wage regions developing regions such as rural India to cities such as Mumbai Dual labour Developed countries 'pull' migrant workers to fill Fruit and vegetable harvesting market theory low-skilled jobs, as local population unwilling to do in the UK, attracts EU workers this work World systems Trade between countries is favourable to one Former colonies remain theory above the other, encouraging migration along dependent on colonial these trade routes superpower - UK and India Page 11 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Relative People feel they have less in comparison to North/South migration in the deprivation someone else (usually wealth), and therefore, feel UK, where people in the north Your notes theory deprived. Successful migrants act as examples to of England feel deprived in the source community encouraging migration relation to the south and migrate southwards New economics The theory views migration as an economic Male construction workers of labour strategy of a household and suggests that the from India migrating to Dubai migration (NELM) family's economic situation would change as the and sending remittances family member sends remittances back. The home to families family's act together to spread the cost and all benefits eventually Movement of Labour In many nation states, the movement of labour is unrestricted and is based on the notion that humans are an economic resource for businesses to exploit It is considered an efficient way of allocating resources e.g. regional movements in the UK Flows of migrants are focused on core economic development regions, at varying levels from local, national and international In order to achieve maximum economic output, businesses argue that people should be allowed to move freely to available jobs, therefore, migration is considered an effective method of achieving this This is the basis of free movement of labour and allows workers to seek work in another country, without requiring any visa This principle also applies to some global regions such as the European Union (EU) but not at a global level - China restricts all movement of its workers, both internally and internationally However, free movement creates winners and losers: Advantages and Disadvantages of Free Movement of Labour Advantages Disadvantages Business profits increase due to a fall in wages - Increased competition for jobs and many people businesses have a choice of who to employ have multiple jobs in order to survive Highly skilled workers are in demand and command Businesses lose profits when having to pay higher higher wages wages to skilled employees Page 12 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Trickle down wealth from core regions to the Changing economic activity and loss of income or peripheries - branch offices and factories unemployment Your notes People have a choice of where to work and live Loss of talent - 'brain drain' Barriers to freedom of movement - China's hukou records As of 2020, 60.6% of the total Chinese population lived in urban areas, a dramatic increase from 17.92% in 1978 When the Communist Party in China came to power in 1949, under Mao Zedong (Chairman Mao) One of its goals was to create economic stability between the country’s large rural farming population (periphery) and its growing urban areas (core) One problem China saw, was the potentially large influx of rural workers to the cities looking for higher paying jobs To avoid protests, strikes and slum development such as those in Latin America and Indian cities, the Chinese government implemented the Huji system in 1958 This was to serve three main functions: Control of internal migration Management of social protection Preservation of social stability The plan was to implement a classification system to keep record of all Chinese people as either a rural or urban citizen. The government then tied all social benefits (healthcare, education, social security, working rights, etc.) to a person’s local government The system is called “huji” but it’s commonly known by the name of the records “Hukou.” The Hukou System was implemented in 1958 and is still in place today The Hukou System effectively limits the amount of rural-urban migration. People from rural China would be far less likely to move to urban areas if it means giving up their healthcare, education and social security People from urban areas were given preferential treatment They got better social benefits; since their local governments had more resources They had access to higher paying jobs and rural workers were limited in the urban marketplace Because the people from urban areas were more likely to have an education, they were also considered more likely to protest Page 13 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources The preferential treatment was considered a way of calming the risk of any major uprising against the Communist Party Your notes Impact on rural regions Whilst urban citizens enjoy a supply of labour opportunities and comfortable benefits for their families Rural people struggle as farming in rural China is very difficult The terrain is mountainous and the land lacks sufficient nutrients for farming Access to clean water is scarce and there is often extreme draught There is little economic infrastructure and a lack of access to modern farming equipment As China’s economic power grew, the cities grew, and jobs become more available, the trade-offs for rural farmers to move to the city became more attractive In recent years, the rate of Chinese rural-urban migration is the largest in the history of the world More than 250 million Chinese people are estimated to migrate to the cities each year (that’s 2/3 of the population of the US) The Chinese population remained primarily rural all the way up to 2012. During that year, China’s urban population officially grew larger than the rural population Floating population – 240 million people as of 2020 Non-hukou migrant without local residency rights are also called the 'floating population' Often it is the parents moving to the cities, leaving their young children to be raised by grandparents These children are the forgotten casualties of China’s economic boom These migrants have no access to healthcare, workers' rights etc. in urban areas Reform Whilst the Hukou System has been successful, it is widely disliked The Communist Party created an organized caste system with Hukou where the people from rural areas were systematically discriminated against In 2014, reform was finally addressed by the government with the removal the rural and urban system of Hukou All Chinese people will now simply be called residents, but, all social benefits are still tied to a resident’s hometown There is a process to transfer residency, but it is extremely limited in the major cities Page 14 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources However, it will be easier for people from rural areas to move to other rural towns and smaller cities Impact Your notes The socio-economic impacts of 50+ years of “rural” and “urban” classification are incalculable Generations were conditioned to believe they were second-rate citizens and received second-rate treatment Even with restrictions somewhat relaxed, it will take help and a number of years for the damage to be repaired This is an acceptable condition for China, as they have successfully avoided squatter settlements and public protests around their major cities Today, there are still over 250 million people in rural areas living on less than $2/day Page 15 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Consequances of International Migration Your notes Impacts of Migration Migration changes the cultural and ethnic composition of nation states The openness of government policies can determine the rate of assimilation e.g. Singapore’s migration policy results in a ‘melting pot’ of cultures and identities The rate of assimilation of migrants varies, particularly when there are distinctive ethnic differences Ethnicity is the shared identity of an ethnic group and can be based on shared ancestral roots or cultural characteristics such as food, religion, clothing or language If the country is already a multi-cultural/multi-racial society there is a greater rate of assimilation A greater level of diversity is brought to places, but doesn't necessarily mean there is a change of race - in Greater Manchester, some areas have a high concentration of Asian/Asian British population, but Manchester is not changing its racial composition as a result Other places are more mixed, suggesting some assimilation through inter-marriage, social mixing and shared cultural life and work An area of Cardiff which covered Butetown and Cardiff Docks was known as Tiger Bay, (now Cardiff Bay) and is Wales’ oldest multi-ethnic community, with sailors and workers from over 50 countries settling there from the mid-19th century onwards All these nationalities helped to create the multicultural character of the area, where people from different backgrounds socialised and intermarried Highly segregated places can be problematic as deprivation, inequality and discrimination leads to some ethnic groups suffering above average rates of health issues, poverty and unemployment Historical policies that enforced segregation in the past can reduce the rate of assimilation e.g. in South Africa the rate of assimilation is low due to the lasting effects of the apartheid system Not all segregation is forced, but will depend upon whether the migrants embed themselves in the national culture or reside solely in ethnic enclaves Italian, Chinese, Jewish, Muslim and Sikh communities often hold onto their own culture and traditions - China Town in the City of Westminster, London, or Little Italy in New York Centres of worship 'anchor' diaspora groups to certain areas, along with dietary needs, e.g. Jewish community need for kosher meat and bakery Differences in religion can lead to reduced assimilation rates, as migrants religious beliefs may conflict with the values and traditions of the country they have moved to Page 16 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources The rise of far-right nationalist groups can mean that migrant groups are not accepted The amount of time that migrants are resident in the host nation influences the rate of assimilation Your notes Diversity rates lessen over time - in the 2011 UK census, 77% of people resident in the UK for more than 30 years identified as having a UK identity, compared to just 10% for recent arrivals The ability of migrants to speak the local language can increase the rate of assimilation, particularly as they can gain employment and participate in the community Migration & Political Tensions Migration causes political tensions because of differences in perceptions of the social, economic, cultural and demographic impacts It is a major global issue, with about 3% of the world’s population living outside their country of birth (approx. 272 million people) - 2/3rds of these are economic migrants In the past, it has had a huge impact on both donor and receiving nations In terms of the receiving countries, the consequences have generally been beneficial But today, few countries support or want a large influx of outsiders, for a variety of reasons Immigrants will vote for parties' centre or left and not to the right as these tend to be against migration Immigrants will head for economic core regions and to inner city regions and can impact on voting patterns When immigrant groups reach a certain size and standing, they begin to develop their own politicians instead of people from the host society High levels of migration into one country can lead to political tension - Mexico/US. Whilst developing countries look more favourably on international migrants Environmental issues are based on the premise that migrants put excessive strain on environmental systems, but others feel this is a way of curtailing immigration The most well-known example is the Mexico/US border Between 1900 and 1920 24 million new arrivals were registered due to the 'open door' policy of that time Subsequently, migration restrictions have been introduced, with the US Green Card becoming harder to obtain Now, there are approximately 40 million non-US born citizens, with many more undocumented, illegal migrants Page 17 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Due in part to increased immigration enforcement and to a strengthening Mexican economy. In recent years, the number of Mexicans leaving the United States is greater than inward migration, even though the country remains the top destination for Mexican emigrants Your notes Since 2013, Mexico stopped being the top country of origin to the United States, overtaken by India and China Infact, most migrants into the US, are more likely to be college graduates, than field workers of prior decades Gains and Losses for Mexico Costs Benefits Large scale depopulation of towns and villages Migrants send home remittances Many men migrate, leaving a majority of women who have Remittances can then support a better problems finding marriage partners standard of living for those left behind Migration can break up families Builds better housing, healthcare and education Young people tend to migrate, leaving the old and very Less competition for jobs and housing in young dependents behind Mexico Rural areas of Mexico have shortages of economically active people and lack key workers – Drs, teachers etc. Gains and Losses for USA Costs Benefits Unskilled American workers find it harder to get jobs, Businesses have benefitted as they now have a as they want a higher wage than Mexican migrants source of cheap labour and higher profits Wages are kept low, and all-American workers are Mexicans are prepared to do many of the jobs affected that Americans do not want such as fruit picking or factory work Page 18 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources Increased cultural and racial tension, especially in the Large numbers of Mexicans have brought their towns culture and food with them making Mexican Your notes food very popular in California (Mexifornia) Illegal migration is seen as a drain on the American More competition for jobs and housing in USA, economy – border patrol costs, holding centres, benefitting landlords and businesses prisons, transport costs for repatriation, health care etc The USA spent $4.2 billion on US/Mexico border Mexican immigrants contribute approximately security in 2020 4% to the US's GDP Examiner Tips and Tricks You need to be able to interpret a number of viewpoints and opinions from a variety of sources on the contribution of migrants to the culture and social life of two contrasting countries. It is important to have facts and figures that you can draw on to distinguish the comparisons. Barriers to Migration There are variations in the ability of people to migrate across national borders according to levels of skill and income; and opportunities, including the presence or absence of controls and international borders Based on the idea of how attractive an immigrant is to a destination country Occupation shortages New Zealand and Australia, for example, operates a points-based system which admits those immigrants that have the skill set that the country’s economy currently requires Often the immigrant must also prove that they are able to support themselves financially for an initial period of time, until they have contributed enough to the country’s welfare system to receive support from it in times of need This obviously means that immigrants from an HDE have a better chance of migrating into that country, as they will have had more chance of acquiring the skills and experience than an economy like New Zealand’s requires In other areas, such as the EU, agreements like Schengen, which means that unskilled workers can move to other EU countries freely and without hindrance Page 19 of 20 © 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers  Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources This obviously gives them an advantage over potential immigrants from outside the EU area Sponsored migration Your notes Other nations, for example the USA, have more stringent immigration policies and potential migrants have to qualify by gaining a green card in a lottery or prove that they have a job offer before they go They also need to be sponsored by a US citizen or company, and be employed in a job that no other US citizen could reasonably undertake Other countries limit travel opportunities for their population, for example North Korea and China People from LDE nations' such as those in North Africa, may lack the financial resources or skills/levels of education that other more attractive economies may require They then travel as unskilled workers, or they may travel illegally or try to claim refugee status. As a result, they can end up in camps like the ‘Jungle’ in Calais while they wait to get to the UK, or find themselves in situations where they are open to exploitation or illegal status where they risk deportation Illegal migration Some countries have little or no control over their borders due to: Long borders, particularly coastlines e.g. Greece has a lot of islands Conflict which reduces central government control over its country International conflict which motivates people to migrate, which can create an underground market for trafficking - Ukraine/Russia conflict Examiner Tips and Tricks Students at times make very generalised statements about attitudes to immigration. Try to be as specific as possible. For example, many employers favour a high rate of immigration because it increases the potential pool of labour, while trade unions sometimes oppose high immigration because this can keep wage rates lower than they would otherwise be. 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