A Brief History of Modern India PDF 2019

A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir I.P.S. With contributions from R. Vidya Sabina Madan Shashi Kumar Saxena...

A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir I.P.S. With contributions from R. Vidya Sabina Madan Shashi Kumar Saxena Kalpana Rajaram Editor Kalpana Rajaram Revised and Enlarged Edition 2019 SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058  Editor’s Note Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians of India’s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to the day India won independence and the early years of freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details are also highlighted. It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been considered; the disparate efforts—small but significant— of several groups have also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters. The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find the book of use and interest. The present edition includes chapters on the advent of (iii)  Editor’s Note the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incorporating additional information under several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced in the wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed. A new chapter on India after Nehru has been added that discusses various developments under the governments that came after 1964. A survey of personalities associated with various movements, peasant and tribal movements, tables and charts are also given for quick reference. Suggestions for improvement are welcome. Kalpana Rajaram July 2019 (iv)  Contents UNIT 1 SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1 Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India 1 Archival Materials 2 Central Government Archives 2 Archives of the State Governments 3 Archives of Three Presidencies 4 Archives of Other European Powers 4 Judicial Records 5 Published Archives 5 Private Archives 6 Foreign Repositories 6 Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 7 Newspapers and Journals 8 Oral Evidence 9 Creative Literature 10 Painting 10 Summary 12 Chapter 2 13 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 13 Colonial Approach/ Historiography 14 Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 14 Marxist Historiography/ Approach 15 Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 16 Communalist Approach 17 Cambridge School 18 Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 18 (v)  Contents Feminist Historiography 18 Summary 19 UNIT 2 ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 21 CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India 21 The Portuguese in India 22 The Quest for and Discovery of a 22 Sea Route to India From Trading to Ruling 23 Portuguese State 28 Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 30 Decline of the Portuguese 32 Significance of the Portuguese 34 The Dutch 35 Dutch Settlements 35 Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 36 Decline of the Dutch in India 36 The English 37 Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 37 Progress of the English Company 38 The French 42 Foundation of French Centres in India 42 The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 44 Carnatic Wars Causes for the English Success and the 51 French Failure The Danes 53 Why the English Succeeded against 53 Other European Powers Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 53 Naval Superiority 54 Industrial Revolution 54 Military Skill and Discipline 54 Stable Government 54 (vi)  Contents Lesser Zeal for Religion 55 Use of Debt Market 55 Summary 55 Boxes Portuguese Rise and Fall 33 Formative Years of the East India Company 41 Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 47 About the Goods in Trade Initially 52 Chapter 4 India on the Eve of British Conquest 59 Challenges before the Mughals 59 External Challenges 59 Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An Internal Challenge 62 Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 64 Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 65 Jagirdari Crisis 65 Rise of Regional Aspirations 68 Economic and Administrative Problems 69 Rise of Regional States 69 Survey of Regional Kingdoms 70 Nature and Limitations of Regional States 73 Socio-Economic Conditions 74 Agriculture 74 Trade and Industry 74 Status of Education 76 Societal Set-up 76 Developments in Art, Architecture 78 and Culture Summary 79 Boxes Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 61 Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 68 Chapter 5 Expansion and Consolidation of British 81 Power in India The British Imperial History 81 Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 81 When did the British Period Begin in India? 83 (vii)  Contents Causes of British Success in India 84 Superior Arms, Military and Strategy 84 Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 84 Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 85 Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second 85 Line Leaders Strong Financial Backup 85 Nationalist Pride 86 British Conquest of Bengal 86 Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 86 Alivardi Khan and the English 87 Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula 87 The Battle of Plassey 88 Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 89 The Battle of Buxar 90 The Treaty of Allahabad 92 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) 93 Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 94 The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 94 Rise of Haidar Ali 94 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 95 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) 96 Third Anglo-Mysore War 97 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 98 Mysore After Tipu 100 Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 101 Rise of the Marathas 101 Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 101 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) 102 Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) 104 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) 106 Why the Marathas Lost 107 Conquest of Sindh 109 Rise of Talpuras Amirs 109 Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 109 Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 113 Conquest of Punjab 113 Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 113 Ranjit Singh and the English 115 Punjab After Ranjit Singh 116 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) 116 (viii)  Contents Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) 118 Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 119 Extension of British Paramountcy Through 119 Administrative Policy The Policy of Ring-Fence 119 Subsidiary Alliance 120 Doctrine of Lapse 123 Relations of British India with Neighbouring 125 Countries Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 125 Anglo-Nepalese Relations 126 Anglo-Burmese Relations 126 Anglo-Tibetan Relations 128 Anglo-Afghan Relations 129 John Lawrence and the Policy of 130 Masterly Inactivity Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 131 British India and the North-West Frontier 132 Summary 133 Boxes Robert Clive 92 Estimate of Tipu Sultan 99 Annexation of Awadh 124 UNIT 3 RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 136 COMPANY RULE Chapter 6 People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 136 People’s Resistance: Meaning 137 Genesis of People’s Resistance 137 Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 138 Civil Uprisings 138 Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 138 General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 139 Important Civil Uprisings 139 Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 152 Tribal Revolts 153 Different Causes for Mainland and 153 (ix)  Contents North-Eastern Tribal Revolts Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 155 Important Tribal Movements of Mainland 155 Tribal Movements of the North-East 160 Sepoy Mutinies 162 Causes 162 Important Mutinies 162 Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 163 Summary 164 Boxes Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 159 North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 161 Region, Major Causes Chapter 7 The Revolt of 1857 167 Simmering Discontent 167 The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 168 Economic Causes 168 Political Causes 169 Administrative Causes 170 Socio-Religious Causes 170 Influence of Outside Events 170 Discontent Among Sepoys 170 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 171 The Spark 171 Starts at Meerut 172 Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 172 Civilians Join 173 Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 174 Suppression of the Revolt 176 Why the Revolt Failed 177 All-India participation was absent 177 All classes did not join 177 Poor Arms and Equipment 178 Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 178 No Unified Ideology 178 Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 179 Nature of the Revolt 179 (x)  Contents Consequences 182 Significance of the Revolt 185 Summary 186 Box White Mutiny 184 UNIT 4 REFORM MOVEMENTS 188 Chapter 8 Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 188 General Features Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 188 Impact of British Rule 189 Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 189 Opposition to Western Culture 190 New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 190 Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 191 Middle Class Base 191 The Intellectual Criteria 192 Two Streams 193 Direction of Social Reform 194 Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 195 Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 199 Summary 204 Chapter 9 A General Survey of Socio-Cultural 206 Reform Movements Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 206 Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 206 Prarthana Samaj 211 Young Bengal Movement and 212 Henry Vivian Derozio Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 213 Balshastri Jambhekar 214 Paramahansa Mandali 214 Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba or Jyotirao Phule 215 Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ 215 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 216 The Servants of India Society 216 (xi)  Contents Social Service League 216 The Ramakrishna Movement and 217 Swami Vivekananda Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 220 Seva Sadan 223 Dev Samaj 224 Dharma Sabha 224 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 224 Radhaswami Movement 225 Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) 225 Movement Vokkaliga Sangha 226 Justice Movement 226 Self-Respect Movement 226 Temple Entry Movement 227 Indian Social Conference 227 Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 227 Titu Mir‘s Movement 228 Faraizi Movement 228 Ahmadiyya Movement 229 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement 229 The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 231 Parsi Reform Movements 232 Sikh Reform Movements 232 The Theosophical Movement 233 Significance of Reform Movements 234 Positive Aspects 234 Negative Aspects 236 Summary 237 UNIT 5 THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 239 Chapter 10 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 239 Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism 239 Understanding of Contradictions in Indian and 240 Colonial Interests Political, Administrative and Economic 240 Unification of the Country (xii)  Contents Western Thought and Education 241 Role of Press and Literature 241 Rediscovery of India’s Past 242 Progressive Character of Socio-religious 242 Reform Movements Rise of Middle Class Intelligentsia 242 Impact of Contemporary Movements 242 in the World Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance 243 of Rulers Political Associations Before the Indian 243 National Congress Political Associations in Bengal 244 Political Associations in Bombay 245 Political Associations in Madras 245 Pre-Congress Campaigns 246 Summary 246 Chapter 11 Indian National Congress: Foundation and the 247 Moderate Phase Foundation of Indian National Congress 247 Was It a Safety Valve? 248 Aims and Objectives of the Congress 249 Era of Moderates (1885-1905) 249 Important Leaders 249 Moderate Approach 249 Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 250 Economic Critique of British Imperialism 250 Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in 251 Legislature Campaign for General Administrative Reforms 253 Protection of Civil Rights 253 An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 254 Role of Masses 255 Attitude of the Government 255 Summary 256 Box Indian Councils Act 1892 252 (xiii)  Contents UNIT 6 NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1918) 257 Chapter 12 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) 257 Growth of Militant Nationalism 257 Why Militant Nationalism Grew 257 The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 261 Partition of Bengal to Divide People 261 Anti-Partition Campaign Under 262 Moderates (1903-05) The Congress’s Position 263 The Movement under Extremist Leadership 264 The Extremist Programme 264 New Forms of Struggle and Impact 265 Extent of Mass Participation 267 All India Aspect 269 Annulment of Partition 269 Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 269 The Movement Fizzles Out 269 Movement a Turning Point 270 The Surat Split 272 Run-up to Surat 272 Split Takes Place 274 Government Repression 274 The Government Strategy 275 Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 276 The Reforms 277 Evaluation 278 Summary 279 Box Differences between Moderates and Extremists 271 Chapter 13 First Phase of Revolutionary Activities 282 (1907-1917) Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 282 The Revolutionary Programme 283 A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 283 Bengal 283 Maharashtra 286 (xiv)  Contents Punjab 287 Revolutionary Activities Abroad 287 Decline 291 Summary 291 Chapter 14 First World War and Nationalist Response 294 Home Rule League Movement 295 Factors Leading to the Movement 295 The Leagues 296 The Home Rule League Programme 297 Government Attitude 298 Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919 298 Positive Gains 299 Lucknow Session of the Indian 300 National Congress (1916) Readmission of Extremists to Congress 300 Lucknow Pact between Congress and 300 Muslim League Montagu’s Statement of August 1917 303 Indian Objections 303 Summary 304 UNIT 7 ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS 305 (1919-1939) Chapter 15 Emergence of Gandhi 305 Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 306 Post-War Economic Hardships 306 Expectations of Political Gains for Cooperation 306 in the War Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism 307 Worldwide Impact of Russian Revolution 307 (November 7, 1917) Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government 308 of India Act, 1919 Main Features 308 (xv)  Contents Drawbacks 310 Congress Reaction 311 Making of Gandhi 312 Early Career and Experiments with 312 Truth in South Africa Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa 315 Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha 315 Gandhi in India 316 Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil 316 Disobedience Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—First 317 Hunger Strike Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First 318 Non-Cooperation Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda 319 Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 320 The Rowlatt Act 320 Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt Act— 321 First Mass Strike Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 322 The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 324 Congress View 326 Summary 327 Box Tolstoy Farm 314 Chapter 16 Non-Cooperation Movement and 328 Khilafat Aandolan Background 328 The Khilafat Issue 329 Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation 330 Programme Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 330 Muslim League Support to Congress 331 The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement 331 Spread of the Movement 333 People’s Response 334 Government Response 336 The Last Phase of the Movement 336 Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 337 (xvi)  Contents Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 338 Summary 339 Chapter 17 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 340 Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces Swarajists and No-Changers 340 Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 340 Swarajists’ Arguments 341 No-Changers’ Arguments 341 Agree to Disagree 341 The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 342 Gandhi’s Attitude 342 Swarajist Activity in Councils 343 Constructive Work by No-Changers 345 Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 345 Youth Power, Trade Unionism Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 346 Activism of Indian Youth 347 Peasants’ Agitations 347 Growth of Trade Unionism 347 Caste Movements 347 Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards 348 Socialism Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s 348 Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 348 after Non-Cooperation Movement Major Influences 349 In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 349 In Bengal 351 Official Reaction 353 Ideological Rethinking 353 Summary 356 Chapter 18 Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 357 Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 357 Indian Response 358 Police Repression 360 Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission 360 on the National Movement The Simon Commission Recommendations 360 (xvii)  Contents Nehru Report 361 Main Recommendations 362 The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 362 Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 364 Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 365 Summary 365 Box Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 359 Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience Movement and Round 366 Table Conferences The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 366 Calcutta Session of Congress 366 Political Activity during 1929 367 Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 367 Delhi Manifesto 368 Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 368 January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 369 Civil Disobedience Movement—the Salt Satyagraha 370 and Other Upsurges Gandhi’s Eleven Demands 370 Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 371 Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930) 371 Spread of Salt Law Disobedience 372 Impact of Agitation 377 Extent of Mass Participation 377 Government Response—Efforts for Truce 378 Gandhi-Irwin Pact 379 Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 380 Karachi Congress Session—1931 381 Congress Resolutions at Karachi 381 The Round Table Conferences 382 First Round Table Conference 382 Second Round Table Conference 384 Third Round Table Conference 387 Civil Disobedience Resumed 388 During Truce Period (March-December 1931) 388 Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC 388 Government Action 389 Popular Response 389 (xviii)  Contents Communal Award and Poona Pact 389 Main Provisions of the Communal Award 390 Congress Stand 391 Gandhi’s Response 391 Poona Pact 392 Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 392 Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste 393 Ideological Differences and Similarities between 395 Gandhi and Ambedkar Summary 399 Chapter 20 Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 401 Disobedience Movement The First Stage Debate 401 Nehru’s Vision 402 Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle- 402 Truce-Struggle Strategy Finally, Yes to Council Entry 403 Government of India Act, 1935 404 Main Features 404 Evaluation of the Act 406 Nationalists’ Response 407 The Second Stage Debate 408 Divided Opinion 408 Gandhi’s Position 409 Congress Manifesto for Elections 409 Congress’ Performance 410 Summary 410 Chapter 21 Congress Rule in Provinces 411 Gandhi’s Advice 411 Work under Congress Ministries 411 Civil Liberties 412 Agrarian Reforms 412 Attitude Towards Labour 413 Social Welfare Reforms 414 Evaluation 414 Summary 415 (xix)  Contents UNIT 8 TOWARDS FREEDOM AND 430 PARTITION (1939-1947) Chapter 22 Nationalist Response in the Wake of 416 World War II Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle 416 Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash 417 Bose’s Views Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 421 Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 421 Means and Ends 422 Form of Government 423 Militarism 426 Ideas on Economy 426 Religion 428 Caste and Untouchability 430 Women 430 Education 433 Second World War and Nationalistic Response 434 Congress Offer to Viceroy 434 CWC Meeting at Wardha 434 Government Attitude and Congress Ministries’ 436 Resignation Government’s Hidden Agenda 436 August Offer 439 Responses 439 Evaluation 440 Individual Satyagraha 440 Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor 441 Cripps Mission 442 Why Cripps Mission was Sent 442 Main Proposals 442 Departures from the Past and Implications 443 Why Cripps Mission Failed 443 Summary 445 Chapter 23 Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, 447 and the INA Quit India Movement 447 Why Start a Struggle Now 447 (xx)  Contents The ‘Quit India’ Resolution 448 Gandhi’s General Instructions to 448 Different Sections Spread of the Movement 449 Extent of Mass Participation 451 Government Repression 451 Estimate 452 Gandhi Fasts 452 Famine of 1943 453 Rajagopalachari Formula 453 The Formula 453 Objections 454 Desai-Liaqat Pact 454 Wavell Plan 454 Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now 455 The Plan 455 Muslim League’s Stand 455 Congress Stand 456 Wavell’s Mistake 456 The Indian National Army and Subhash Bose 456 Origin and First Phase of the Indian National 457 Army Summary 460 Chapter 24 Post-War National Scenario 462 Two Strands of National Upsurge 462 Change in Government’s Attitude 463 Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 464 Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 464 Congress Support for INA Prisoners 465 The INA Agitation—A Landmark on 465 Many Counts Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945-46 466 Three-Stage Pattern 466 Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 468 Three Upsurges Congress Strategy 469 Election Results 469 Performance of the Congress 469 Muslim League’s Performance 470 Significant Features of Elections 470 (xxi)  Contents The Cabinet Mission 470 Why British Withdrawal Seemed 470 Imminent Now On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 472 Cabinet Mission Arrives 472 Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points 472 Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 474 Main Objections 474 Acceptance and Rejection 475 Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 476 Changed Government Priorities 476 Interim Government 476 Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 477 Motives of the League Birth and Spread of Communalism in India 478 Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 478 Reasons for Growth of Communalism 479 Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 485 Summary 489 Box Wavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ 475 Chapter 25 Independence with Partition 491 Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 491 Main Points of Attlee’s Statement 491 Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal 492 Congress Stand 492 Independence and Partition 492 Mountbatten as the Viceroy 493 Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 493 Indian Independence Act 495 Problems of Early Withdrawal 496 Integration of States 496 Inevitability of Partition 497 Why Congress Accepted Partition 497 Gandhi’s Helplessness 500 Summary 500 Box Plan Balkan 496 (xxii)  Contents UNIT 9 INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: 501 GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTS Chapter 26 Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial 501 Developments Constitutional Development between 1773 and 1858 502 The Regulating Act of 1773 502 Pitt’s India Act of 1784 503 The Act of 1786 504 The Charter Act of 1793 504 The Charter Act of 1813 504 The Charter Act of 1833 505 The Charter Act of 1853 506 The Act for Better Government of India, 1858 507 Developments after 1858 till Independence 507 Indian Councils Act, 1861 507 Indian Councils Act, 1892 508 Indian Councils Act, 1909 508 Government of India Act, 1919 509 Simon Commission 511 Government of India Act, 1935 511 Evolution of Civil Services in India 513 Cornwallis’ Role 513 Wellesley’s Role 514 Charter Act of 1853 514 Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 514 Statutory Civil Service 515 Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 515 Montford Reforms (1919) 515 Lee Commission (1924) 516 Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 516 Evolution of Police System in Modern India 517 Military Under the British 519 Development of Judiciary in British India 520 Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-1785) 521 Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793)— 522 Separation of Powers Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-1833) 522 Later Developments 523 Evaluation 523 (xxiii)  Contents Major Changes in Administrative Structure after 1857 524 Genesis of Administrative Changes: 524 New Stage of Colonialism Administration: Central, Provincial, Local 525 Central Government 525 Provincial Government 526 Local Bodies 527 Chapter 27 Survey of British Policies in India 532 Administrative Policies 532 Divide and Rule 532 Hostility Towards Educated Indians 532 Attitude Towards the Zamindars 533 Attitude Towards Social Reforms 533 Underdeveloped Social Services 533 Labour Legislations 534 Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 535 White Racism 535 British Social and Cultural Policy in India 536 Characteristics of New Thought 536 Schools of Thought 536 Indian Renaissance 537 Dilemma Before the Government 538 Role of Christian Missionaries 538 British Retreat 538 British Policy Towards Princely States 538 British Foreign Policy in India 539 Summary 540 Chapter 28 Economic Impact of British Rule in India 541 Deindustrialisation—Ruin of Artisans and 541 Handicraftsmen One-Way Free Trade 541 No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 542 Ruralisation 542 Impoverishment of Peasantry 542 Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, 543 Ruin of Old Zamindars Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 544 (xxiv)  Contents Famine and Poverty 544 Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 544 Destruction of Industry and Late Development of 545 Modern Industry Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 548 British Policies Making India Poor 549 Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain 549 One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 551 Effect of Economic Drain 551 Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest 552 Stages of Colonialism in India 552 First Stage 553 Second Stage 554 Third Stage 555 Summary 556 Box Economic Drain 548 Chapter 29 Development of Indian Press 557 Early Regulations 557 Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure Press Freedom 558 Vernacular Press Act, 1878 559 During and After the First World War 562 During the Second World War 562 Chapter 30 Development of Education 563 Under Company Rule 563 A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 564 Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 564 Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) 564 Efforts of Thomson 565 Wood’s Despatch (1854) 565 After the Crown Took Over 566 Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) 566 Indian Universities Act, 1904 567 Government Resolution on Education 568 Policy (1913) Saddler University Commission (1917-19) 568 Education Under Dyarchy 569 (xxv)  Contents Hartog Committee (1929) 569 Sergeant Plan of Education 570 Development of Vernacular Education 571 Development of Technical Education 572 Evaluation of British Policy on Education 572 Box Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 570 Chapter 31 Peasant Movements 1857-1947 574 Peasantry Under Colonialism 574 A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 575 Indigo Revolt (1859-60) 575 Pabna Agrarian Leagues 575 Deccan Riots 576 Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after 1857 577 Weaknesses 577 Later Movements 578 The Kisan Sabha Movement 578 Eka Movement 579 Mappila Revolt 579 Bardoli Satyagraha 580 The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 581 Under Congress Ministries 581 Peasant Activity in Provinces 581 During the War 582 Post-War Phase 583 Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 584 Chapter 32 The Movement of the Working Class 585 Early Efforts 585 During Swadeshi Upsurge 586 During the First World War and After 587 The AITUC 587 The Trade Union Act, 1926 588 Late 1920s 588 Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 588 Under Congress Ministries 589 During and After the Second World War 589 After Independence 589 (xxvi)  Contents UNIT 10 INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 590 Chapter 33 Challenges Before the New-born Nation 590 First Day of Independent India 590 First Government After Independence 591 Challenges 592 Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the Communal Riots 592 Challenges before the Boundary Commission 593 Regions Most Affected by Riots 594 Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 595 Division of Civil Government 596 Division of Finances 596 Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 597 Assassination of Gandhi 597 Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees 598 East Punjab 598 Bengal 599 Delhi Pact on Minorities 599 Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 600 Communists and Independence 600 Why Communists were Sceptical about 601 Independence? Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to 602 Constitutional Democracy Chapter 34 The Indian States 603 I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality from a 603 Position of Subordination (1740-1765) II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813) 604 III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857) 604 IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935) 605 Curzon’s Approach 605 Post-1905 606 V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935-1947): 607 A Non-Starter VI. Integration and Merger 607 Plebiscite and Army Action 608 Gradual Integration 608 (xxvii)  Contents Chapter 35 Making of the Constitution for India 610 Background 610 Constituent Assembly 613 Formation 613 Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 614 Evaluation of the Assembly for India 615 After Independence 616 Work : Committees and Consensus 616 Box Drafting Committee 616 Chapter 36 The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy 619 1880 to First World War: Anti-Imperialism 620 and Pan-Asian Feeling World War I 621 1920s and 1930s—Identifying with Socialists 621 After 1936—Anti-Fascism 622 After Independence 622 Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 623 Boxes Historical Perspective on Panchsheel 624 Five Criteria of Non-alignment 626 Chapter 37 First General Elections 628 Groundwork for the Elections 628 The Election Commission 628 Legislation for Polls 629 Independent India Goes to the Polls for the 629 First Time Challenges 630 Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 631 Conduct of Elections 632 Results 633 Box First General Elections: Winners 634 (xxviii)  Contents Chapter 38 Developments under Nehru’s Leadership (1947-64) 635 Political Developments 636 Debate Over National Language 636 Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 637 Growth of other Political Parties 639 An Undemocratic Deed 644 Concept of Planning for Economic Development 644 Progress of Science and Technology 646 Social Developments 647 Developments in Education 647 Social Change Under Nehru 648 Foreign Policy 648 Relations with Neighbours 649 India and Pakistan 649 India and China 650 India and Nepal 652 India and Bhutan 652 India and Sri Lanka 652 Chapter 39 After Nehru... 653 The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years 653 (June 1964 – January 1966) 684 Early Life 654 Political Journey after Independence 654 Economic Ideas 656 Foreign Relations 660 The Indo-Pak War 661 Shastri’s Death 664 Indira Gandhi: the First Phase 664 (January 1966 to March 1977) Early Life 664 Political Journey after Independence 665 Developments in the Political System 677 Socio-Economic Policies 686 Tackling Economic Problems 689 The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the Birth of Bangladesh 692 Foreign Policy and Relations with other Countries 700 The Smiling Buddha 702 (xxix)  Contents The Janata Party Years 704 (March 1977 – January 1980) Morarji Desai the First Non-Congress 704 Prime Minister Fresh State Assembly Elections 704 New President of India 705 Downslide of the Janata and Rise of Congress (I) 705 Charan Singh the Prime Minister who never 707 Faced Parliament Fresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of 708 Janata Party Rule Legacy of the Janata Rule 708 Social Changes and Movements 712 Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase 713 (January 1980 to October 1984) Economy 713 Foreign Relations 714 Unrest in States 716 Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star 716 Legacy 719 Boxes The Tashkent Declaration 663 Indira Gandhi and JP—Both to be Blamed? 671 Text of the Simla Agreement 698 India’s Man in Space 715 The Rajiv Years 720 (October 1984 to December 1989) 720 Problems at the Very Outset 720 The 1985 General Elections 722 Tackling the Tensions in States 723 Positive Steps taken on the Domestic Front 725 The Negative Side 728 Agrarian Unrest 731 Foreign Relations 732 General Elections of 1989 735 The V.P. Singh Years 736 (December 1989 to November 1990) Kashmir Situation Worsens 736 (xxx)  Contents Implementation of the Mandal Commission 737 Report Mandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and Fall 739 of the Government The Chandra Shekhar Government 740 (November 1990 to June 1991) Troubled Economy 740 Elections of 1991 741 The Narasimha Rao Years 742 (June 1991 to May 1996) Economic Reform 742 Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts 744 Handling Security Issues and Space Tech 745 Foreign Policy 745 Negative Aspects 746 Kashmir 748 General Elections of 1996 749 Rise of the Dalit Voice 749 Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime Ministers 750 Vajpayee’s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister 751 United Front Government: Deve Gowda and 751 I.K. Gujral General Elections 753 NDA Years 753 (March 1998 to October 1999) Pokhran II: Operation Shakti 754 The Lahore Summit 755 Kargil War 755 NDA: Second Stint 756 (October 1999 to May 2004) Economic and Social Steps 756 Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan 757 Relations with US 758 Kashmir Elections 758 The Downside 758 Significance of NDA 759 2004 General Election 759 (xxxi)  Contents The UPA Years 760 (May 2004 to May 2009; May 2009 to May 2014) UPA Government: First Term 2009 Election and UPA Back in Power 764 The 2014 General Election 775 The NDA Government 777 (May 2014 – May 2019) Digital India: a Step Forward in e-Governance 778 Socio-Economic Policies and Programmes of 778 Importance Security 788 Foreign Relations 792 Social Situation 795 General Election and Return of the NDA 799 Factors behind the NDA Victory 800 APPENDICES 1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 803 Swadeshi Movement 803 Non-cooperation Movement 806 Civil Disobedience Movement 810 Quit India Movement 813 2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 816 Significant Events in their Rule 3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 824 4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 829 (late 18th to mid-20th century) 5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 836 6. Caste Movements 838 7. Peasant Movements 840 8. Newspapers and Journals 843 (xxxii)  UNIT Sources and Sources Appr oaches Approaches 1 Sources for the History of Modern India Major Approaches to the History of Modern India Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India An abundance of historical material is available for studying India from the mid-18th century to the mid-20th century. In constructing the history of modern India, priority needs to be given to archives. Archives refer to a collection of historical records and documents, usually primary source documents, i.e., those documents that have been created as a necessary part of some activity—administrative, legal, social or commercial. They are unique/original documents, not consciously written or created to convey information to a future generation. An important part of archives relating to modern India are the official records, i.e., the papers of government agencies at various levels. 1  2 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India The records of the East India Company provide a detailed account of trading conditions during the period 1600-1857. When the British crown took over the administration, it also kept a large variety and volume of official records. These records help historians to trace every important development stage-by-stage and follow the processes of decision-making and the psychology of the policy-makers. The records of the other European East India companies (the Portuguese, Dutch and French) are also useful for constructing the history of the 17th and 18th centuries. They are primarily important from the point of view of economic history, but much can be gathered from them about the political set-up as well. There are also many contemporary and semi- contemporary works such as memoirs, biographies and travel accounts which give us interesting as well as useful glimpses into the history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. Newspapers and journals made their appearance in the later part of the 18th century, and they provide very valuable information on almost all aspects of the Indian society, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries. Other sources of modern Indian history include oral evidence, creative literature and paintings. Archival Materials There are four categories of official records (i) central government archives, (ii) state government archives, (iii) records of intermediate and subordinate authorities, and (iv) judicial records. Apart from these, there are private archives and archival sources available abroad. Central Government Archives The National Archives of India, located in New Delhi, contains most of the archives of the Government of India. These provide authentic and reliable source materials on varied aspects of modern Indian history. The records with the National Archives come under various groups, representing  Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 3 different branches of the secretariat at different stages of its development. This happened as the work of the East India Company was distributed among various branches—public or general, revenue, political, military, secret, commercial, judicial, education, etc.—and a separate set of records was kept for each of these branches or departments. With the appointment of James Rennell as the first Surveyor General of Bengal in 1767, the Survey of India began to scientifically map the unknown regions of the country and its bordering lands. The records of the Survey of India as well as the journals and memoirs of the surveyors provide valuable information not only on geographical matters but also on contemporary socio-economic conditions and other important historical aspects. The proceedings of the public, judicial and legislative departments provide ample data for studying the social and religious policies of the colonial government. The government’s policies on education and the growth of the education system during the colonial rule are mentioned in the educational records of the central archives. The papers bearing on the emergence of the nationalist movement were part of the public series of the home department records but, in 1907, a new series of records—Home Political—was started to deal exclusively with political and communal issues. The records of the Reforms Office are very useful for an analytical study of the constitutional developments from 1920 to 1937. Archives of the State Governments The source material in the state archives comprise the records of (i) the former British Indian provinces, (ii) the erstwhile princely states which were incorporated in the Indian Union after 1947, and (iii) the foreign administrations other than those of the British. Apart from these, the records of those Indian powers which were taken over by the British, for instance, the archives of the Kingdom of Lahore (popularly known as Khalsa Darbar records from 1800 to 1849), are important source material. Another important collection of  4 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India the pre-British public archives in India is the Peshwa Daftar housed in the Alienation Office, Pune. It forms the most valuable single source for the study of Maratha history for a period of almost a century before the fall of the Peshwas. For studying the history of the princely states of Rajasthan, viz., Jaipur, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur, etc., the archives of these states, now housed in the Rajasthan State Archives at Bikaner, are valuable. Similarly, the history of Dogra rule from 1846 in Jammu and Kashmir can be studied in the valuable collection of state papers housed at Jammu. The other significant archives of the princely states are those of Gwalior, Indore, Bhopal and Rewa, all in Madhya Pradesh, Travancore and Cochin in Kerala, Mysore in Karnataka and Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Archives of Three Presidencies The early records of Fort Williams (Bengal Presidency) were lost during the sack of Calcutta in 1756, but the archives of the Bengal presidency after the British victory at Plassey have survived more or less in a complete series, which are partly available in the National Archives of India and partly in the State Archives of West Bengal. The records of the Madras Presidency begin from AD 1670 and include records of the Governor and Council of Fort St. George. In these records there is plenty of information bearing on the rise of the English East India Company as a political power in the south and in the Deccan, including the Anglo-French struggle and the English conflicts with other Indian powers. The archives of Bombay Presidency, housed in the Maharashtra Secretariat Record Office, Mumbai, are extremely useful in studying the history of Western India—Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sindh and the Kannada-speaking districts of the erstwhile Bombay Presidency which were incorporated in Mysore in 1956. Archives of Other European Powers The archives related to the Portuguese preserved in Goa, mainly belonging to the period from 1700 to 1900, are  Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 5 valuable for the history of Portuguese possessions in India. The orders and dispatches from Lisbon received in Goa and the responses and reports dispatched from India to Portugal constitute the most significant historical material among the Portuguese archives. The Dutch records of Cochin and Malabar are in the Madras Record Office and those of Chinsura in the state archives of West Bengal. The French archives of Chandernagore and Pondicherry (now Puducherry) were taken to Paris by the French authorities before they relinquished these settlements. The archives of the Danish possessions were also transferred to Copenhagen when the Danes sold Tranquebar and Serampore to the English East India Company in 1845. The remaining Danish records, mainly relating to Tranquebar (1777-1845), are now housed in the Madras Record Office. Judicial Records Housed in the Madras Record Office, the archives of the Mayor’s Court at Fort St. George, beginning from AD 1689, are the earliest available judicial archives. The pre-Plassey records of the Mayor’s Court at Fort Williams have been lost, but those for the years 1757-73 are kept in the record room of the Calcutta High Court, along with the archives of the Supreme Court of Bengal (1774-1861). Similarly, the records of the Mayor’s Court at Bombay established in 1728 are available in the Maharashtra Secretariat Record Office which also has the custody of the archives of the Bombay Recorder’s Court and the Supreme Court. Apart from containing the proceedings and minutes, this category of records contains copies of wills, probates, and letters of administration which are useful for genealogical studies and for investigations pertaining to the state of society and economic conditions in the respective regions. Published Archives The most significant archival publications are the Parliamentary Papers which include many excerpts from the records of the East India Company and the Government of India under the  6 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Crown. The reports of the parliamentary select committees; various royal commissions constituted on specific subjects like education, civil reforms and famines, and the parliamentary debates on the Indian empire are indispensable. The proceedings of the Indian and provincial legislatures, the weekly gazettes published by the central and the provincial governments and collections of laws and regulations issued from time to time also serve as useful source material for historical research. Private Archives Private archives comprise papers and documents of individuals and families of note, who played a significant role in the development of modern India. The papers of eminent leaders of the nationalist movement and the records of organisations like the Indian National Congress are housed in the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in New Delhi. The archives of banks, business houses and chambers of commerce are extremely helpful in the study of economic changes. Foreign Repositories A vast body of historical material related to the history of modern India is available in the repositories of erstwhile imperialist powers, who ruled in different parts of the Indian subcontinent as well as in some other countries. In England, the India Office Records, London and the records kept in the British Museum are very valuable. The India Office Records possesses various important documents: the minutes of the Courts of Directors and the General Court of the East India Company and various committees constituted from time to time; the minutes and correspondence of the Board of Control or the Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India; and the records of the Secretary of State and the India Council. The British Museum possesses collections of papers of British viceroys, secretaries of states and other high ranked civil and military officials who were posted in India. The archives of the missionary societies, for instance, of the Church Missionary Society of London, provide insight  Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 7 into the educational and social development in pre-independent India. The Archives Nationale, Paris, and the Archives of the French Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Colonies and War, have records that throw light on the history of French possessions as well as the socio-political conditions. The records of the Dutch East India Company is available in Rijksarchief, The Hague, and that of the Danish and Portuguese are kept in Copenhagen and Lisbon, respectively. Apart from the archives of the European nations, the archives preserved in Pakistan are of utmost importance. The West Pakistan Record Office, Lahore, Record Office, Peshawar, records available in Sind, etc., give information about the regional history of the Indian subcontinent besides shedding light on India’s relations with Afghanistan, Iran and other neighbouring countries in the colonial era. Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts Many travellers, traders, missionaries and civil servants who came to India, have left accounts of their experiences and their impressions of various parts of India. An important group among these writers was that of the missionaries who wrote to encourage their respective societies to send more missionaries to India for the purpose of envangelising its inhabitants. In this genre, Bishop Heber’s Journal and Abbe Dubois’s Hindu Manners and Customs, provide useful information on the socio-economic life of India during the period of decline of the Indian powers and the rise of the British. Some of the famous British travellers who wrote travel accounts were—George Forster, Benjamin Heyne, James Burnes (Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde), Alexander Burnes (Travels Into Bokhara), C.J.C. Davidson (Diary of the Travels and Adventures in Upper India), and John Butler (Travels and Adventures in the Province of  8 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Assam). Famous non-British travellers who wrote about India include Victor Jacquemont (Letters from India describing a journey in the British Dominions of India, Tibet, Lahore and Cashmere during the years 1828-1829—1831), Baron Charles (Travels in Kashmir and the Punjab), and William Moorcroft. These travel accounts are indispensable and generally reliable sources for constructing the history of modern India, especially as they supplement the official papers. Newspapers and Journals Newspapers and journals of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, published in English as well as in the different vernacular languages, form an important and authentic source of information for the construction of the history of modern India. The first attempts to publish newspapers in India were made by the disgruntled employees of the English East India Company who sought to expose the malpractices of private trade. For instance, in 1776, William Bolts, being censured by the Court of Directors for private trading, resigned from the Company and announced his intention to publish a newspaper. The official response to Bolts’ scheme was strong and his plan ended before materialising. In 1780, James Augustus Hickey published the first newspaper in India entitled The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser. Hickey’s press was seized within two years, owing to his outspoken criticism of government officials. Afterwards, many publications appeared such as The Calcutta Gazette (1784), The Madras Courier (1788) and The Bombay Herald (1789). The newspapers and journals of the early period primarily aimed at catering to the intellectual entertainment of the Europeans and Anglo-Indians. From the second half of the 19th century, many powerful newspapers appeared, edited/published by distinguished and fearless journalists. Interestingly, nearly  Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 9 one-third of the founding fathers of the Indian National Congress in 1885 were journalists. Some of their publications were: The Hindu and Swadesamitran under the editorship of G. Subramaniya Iyer, Kesari and Mahratta under Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bengalee under Surendranath Banerjea, Amrita Bazaar Patrika under Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh, Sudharak under Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Indian Mirror under N.N. Sen, Voice of India under Dadabhai Naoroji, Hindustan and Advocate under G.P. Varma. The Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab, Indu Prakash, Dnyan Prakash, Kal and Gujarati in Bombay, and Som Prakash Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal were other noted newspapers of the time. Indian nationalists and revolutionaries living abroad published newspapers and journals—Indian Sociologist (London, Shyamji Krishnavarma), Bande Matram (Paris, Madam Cama), Talwar (Berlin, Virendranath Chattopadhyay), and Ghadar (San Francisco, Lala Hardayal)— to infuse a feeling of nationalism among Indians living abroad. Newspapers depict almost all aspects of life in colonial India from around the 1870s onwards. From the 1920s onwards, newspapers tracked the major events during the freedom struggle. However, newspaper accounts cannot be seen as unprejudiced or completely objective. The accounts that were published in a newspaper in London by the pro- British Raj people were bound to be different from the report in an Indian nationalist paper. Oral Evidence Oral history refers to the construction of history with the help of non-written sources, for instance, personal reminiscence. Oral sources allow historians to broaden the boundaries of their discipline and corroborate their findings from other sources of history. However, many historians remain sceptical of the veracity of oral history.  10 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Creative Literature The most significant outcome of the Indo-European contact was the literary genre of the novel which emerged in the latter half of the 19th century. The first important writer of that period was the Bengali novelist, Bankim Chandra Chatterji (1838-94). His novels are mostly historical, the best known among them being Anandamath (1882), noted for its powerful lyric ‘Vandemataram’ and depiction of the Sanyasi Revolt (1760s). His last novel Rajasimha can be called the grand finale to his remarkable career. Icharam Suryaram Desai (1853-1912) was a fine scholar of medieval Gujarati literary history. His first novel Hind ane Britannia was one of the earliest Indian novels with political overtones. Tamil writers like Girija Devi and Ramatirthammal, who wrote Mohana Rajani (1931) and Dasikalin Mosavalai (1936) respectively, also made the novel an effective vehicle of social experience. G.V. Krishna Rao’s Keelubommalu (The Puppets, 1956) in Telugu was concerned with the moral aspects and behaviour of the rural people. Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910- 1994) was one of the eminent writers in Malayalam whose famous novel Balyakalasakhi (The Childhood Friends, 1944) was a tragic tale of love. Similarly, Thakazhi Siva Sankara Pillai became prominent for his two extremely well written works in Malayalam, Tottiyude Makan (Son of a Scavenger, 1948) and Chemmeen (Shrimps, 1956). Despite having different educational backgrounds and social outlooks, all these writers shared a strong sense of realism and deep interest in the life of the marginalised and oppressed sections of the society. These novels give a picture of the social milieu of the days they relate to. Painting Some information on the socio-economic, political and cultural life during the colonial period can be obtained from the paintings of that period. The Company Paintings, also  Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 11 referred as ‘Patna Kalam’ emerged under the patronage of the East India Company. They picturise the people and scenes as they existed at the time. Trades, festivals, dances and the attire of people are visible in these works. Company paintings continued to be popular in the 19th century until the introduction of photography in India in the 1840s. The pictorial images produced by the British and Indians—paintings, pencil drawings, etchings, posters, cartoons and bazaar prints—are especially important records of the great revolt of 1857. The British pictures offer images that were meant to provoke a range of different emotions and reactions. Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed the rebels. Relief of Lucknow, painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859, is one such example. Another painting of this period, In Memoriam by Joseph Noel Paton, recorded in painting two years of the revolt of 1857. One can see English women and children huddled in a circle, looking helpless and innocent, seemingly waiting for the inevitable—dishonour, violence and death. These paintings of the mutiny period are important for the historian to interpret and understand the worldviews of the British and the Indians regarding this major event. Kalighat painting that came to the fore in Calcutta in the nineteenth century depicted not only mythological figures but also ordinary people engaged in their everyday lives. The latter pictures captured the social changes taking place in the Calcutta of the time. These paintings made a comment on social evils of the time; some of these paintings satirised certain modes adopted by the people of the time. In the last decades of the nineteenth century, a new art movement emerged which received its primary stimulus from the growing nationalism in India. Artists like Nandalal Bose and Raja Ravi Varma were representatives of this new trend. In the rise of the Bengal School led by Abanindranath Tagore (nephew of Rabindranath Tagore), E.B. Havell (who joined the art school in Calcutta as principal) and Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (son of an important Tamil political leader  12 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India in Sri Lanka) played a vital role. Though many of the paintings of this new trend primarily focused on themes of Indian mythology and cultural heritage, they are important sources for studying the modern art movement in India and for the art historians. Summary Sources of Modern Indian History Archival Materials consist of public, private and foreign repositories Public Archives include the archives of the Governments of India, archives of state governments, archives of the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and judicial records. Private Archives Papers and documents of individuals and families of note who played a significant role in the development of modern India. Foreign Repositories Indian office Records in London, Record Office, Lahore, etc. Biographies and Memoirs Accounts of travellers, traders, missionaries and civil servants during the 18th and 19th centuries as well as memoirs written by Indian leaders during Independence movement. Newspapers and Journals Published in India as well as abroad. Others Oral tradition, creative literature, painting.  Chapter 2 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India Looking at how histories are written is part of the study of the intellectual history of the period under discussion and can provide a variety of ideas and explanations. The starting point in the history of a society, therefore, has to be a familiarity with its historiography—the study of historical interpretation. This provides recognition of the intellectual context of history, instead of seeing history as just a narration of events. The modern history of India, for the convenience of understanding, can be read broadly under four approaches— the Colonial (or the Imperialist), Nationalist, Marxist, and Subaltern—each with its own distinct characteristics and modes of interpretation. However, there are other approaches— Communalist, Cambridge, Liberal and Neo-liberal, and Feminist interpretations—which have also influenced historical writing on modern India. View The production of histories of India has become very frequent in recent years and may well call for some explanations… The reason is a two-fold one: changes in the Indian scene requiring a reinterpretation of the facts and changes in the attitudes of historians about the essential elements of Indian history. —Percival Spear 13  14 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Colonial Approach/ Historiography For the major part of the 19th century the Colonial School occupied a high position in India. The term ‘colonial approach’ has been used in two senses. One relates to the history of the colonial countries, while the other refers to the works which were influenced by the colonial ideology of domination. It is in the second sense that most historians today write about the colonial historiography. In fact, the practice of writing about the colonial countries by the colonial officials was related to the desire for domination and justification of the colonial rule. Hence, in most such historical works there was criticism of indigenous society and culture. Simultaneously, there was praise for the Western culture and values and glorification of the individuals who established the colonial empires. The histories of India written by James Mill, Mountstuart Elphinstone, Vincent Smith and many others are pertinent examples of the colonial historiographical trend. Certain characteristics common to most of the works of these historians are the following: (i) ‘Orientalist’ representation of India; (ii) the opinion that the British brought unity to India; (iii) the notions of Social Darwinism—the English considered themselves superior to the ‘natives’ and the fittest to rule; (iv) India viewed as a stagnant society which required guidance from the British (White Man’s burden); and (v) establishing Pax Britannica to bring law and order and peace to a bickering society. Nationalist Historiography/ Approach The nationalist approach to Indian history can be described as one which tends to contribute to the growth of nationalist  Major Approaches to the History of Modern India ✫ 15 feelings and to unify people in the face of religious, caste, or linguistic differences or class differentiation. This approach looks at the national movement as a movement of the Indian people, which grew out of the growing awareness among all people of the exploitative nature of colonial rule. This approach developed as a response to and in confrontation with the colonial approach. It should be noted that the nationalist historians of modern India didn’t exist before 1947. Before 1947, nationalist historiography mainly dealt with the ancient and medieval periods of Indian history. However, in the last quarter of the 19th century, a detailed and scientific critique of colonialism for the adverse economic aspects of alien rule was developed by nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, G.V. Joshi, R.C. Dutt, K.T. Telang, G.K. Gokhale, and D.E. Wacha. The only accounts of the national movement was by nationalist leaders (not historians) such as R.G. Pradhan, A.C. Mazumdar, J.L. Nehru and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. R.C. Majumdar and Tara Chand are noted nationalist historians of modern India. Marxist Historiography/ Approach The beginning of the Marxist approach in India was heralded by two classic books—Rajni Palme Dutt’s India Today and A.R. Desai’s Social Background of Indian Nationalism. Originally written for the famous Left Book Club in England, India Today, first published in 1940 in England, was later published in India in 1947. A.R. Desai’s Social Background of Indian Nationalism, was first published in 1948. Unlike the imperialist/colonial approach, the Marxist historians clearly see the primary contradiction between the interests of the colonial masters and the subject people, as well as the process of the nation-in-the-making. Unlike the nationalists, they also take full note of the inner contradictions between the different sections of the people of the Indian society. However, some of them, particularly Rajni Palme  16 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Dutt, were unable to fully integrate their treatment of the primary anti-imperialist contradiction and the secondary inner contradictions and tended to counterbalance the anti- imperialist struggle with the class or social struggle. They tend to see the national movement as a structured bourgeois movement, if not the bourgeoisie’s movement, and miss its open ended and all-class character. Another noted Marxist historian, who made a critique of R.P. Dutt’s paradigm, is Sumit Sarkar; he considers Dutt’s paradigm as a “simplistic version of the Marxian class approach”. He looks at the nationalist leaders in the light of intelligentsia which acts as a “kind of proxy for as yet passive social forces with which it had little organic connection”. A.R. Desai traces the growth of the national movement in five phases, each phase based on particular social classes which supported and sustained it. Subaltern Approach/ Historiography This school of thought began in the early 1980s under the editorship of Ranajit Guha, as a critique of the existing historiography, which was faulted for ignoring the voice of the people. Right from the beginning, subaltern historiography took the position that the entire tradition of Indian historiography had had an elitist bias. For the subaltern historians, the basic contradiction in Indian society in the colonial epoch was between the elite, both Indian and foreign, on the one hand, and the subaltern groups, on the other, and not between colonialism and the Indian people. However, they do not subscribe to the Marxist theory of the nature of the exploitation by the nationalist movement: they point out that the Indian society of the time could not be seen in terms of class alone, as capitalism in the country was just nascent at the time. This school sees nationalism as exploitative in terms of caste, gender, religious and creed divisions. Nationalism, say the subalterns, ignored the internal  Major Approaches to the History of Modern India ✫ 17 View A few historians have of late initiated a new trend, described by its proponents as subaltern, which dismisses all previous historical writing, including that based on a Marxist perspective, as elite historiography, and claims to replace this old, ‘blinkered’ historiography with what it claims is a new people’s or subaltern approach. —Bipan Chandra contradictions within the society as well as what the marginalised represented or had to say. They believe that the Indian people were never united in a common anti-imperialist struggle, that there was no such entity as the Indian national movement. Instead, they assert, there were two distinct movements or streams: the real anti-imperialist stream of the subalterns and the bogus national movement of the elite. The elite streams, led by the ‘official’ leadership of the Indian National Congress, were little more than a cloak for the struggle for power among the elite. Communalist Approach The historians of this school, relying completely on the colonial historiography of medieval India and colonial era textbooks, viewed Hindus and Muslims as permanent hostile groups whose interests were mutually different and antagonistic to each other. This view was not only reflected in the writings of the historians but also took a more virulent form in the hands of the communal political leaders. In their view, India’s medieval history was one long story of Hindu- Muslim conflict. As a corollary of this view, it was then argued that the 19th- and 20th-century Muslims had the ‘happy’ and ‘proud’ everpresent memory of having been the ruling class, while Hindus had the ‘sad’ and ‘humiliating’ memory of having been the subject race. This, ultimately, developed mutual hatred among these groups often resulting in communal riots and, in the end led to the partition of India.  18 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Cambridge School According to this school of thought, the fundamental contradiction under colonial rule was not between imperialism and the Indian people, but among the Indians themselves. Further, Indian nationalism was not the product of a struggle of the Indian people against colonial exploitation, but what arose from conflict among the Indians for getting the benefits given to them by the British rulers. The leaders of the national movement, according to this school, were inspired by the quest for power and material benefits. This approach has been criticised by many scholars on the ground that it takes the mind or ideals out of human behaviour and reduces nationalism to ‘animal politics’. Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations According to this interpretation, the economic exploitation of the colonies was not beneficial to the British people as a whole. The availability of markets for British industrial goods in the colonial world and capital investment in overseas markets (like laying of railways in India) might have actually discouraged domestic investment and delayed the development of the ‘new’ industries in Britain. The proponents of this school of thought are Patrick O’Brian, Hopkins and Cain. Feminist Historiography The shift in terms of the writing of women’s history began with the women’s movement of the 1970s which provided the context and impetus for the emergence of women’s studies in India. Very soon, women’s history broadened and assumed the more complex shape of gender history. In the early years, the endeavour was to write a history of women to supplement the writings of mainstream history. Also, an attempt was made to research and compile an archive of  Major Approaches to the History of Modern India ✫ 19 women’s writing. An important area of research has been analysis of the way in which colonial structures, such as the legal structure, affected women’s lives. Women’s vulnerability due to the denial of ownership of productive resources has been focused on, in the analysis of how progressive laws shaped gender relations. In the colonial period, two works based upon the women’s question in India—The High Caste Hindu Woman (1887) by Pandita Ramabai, and Mother India (1927) by Katherine Mayo—attracted international attention. Summary Different Approaches Colonial Approach is influenced by the colonial ideology of domination. It focuses on criticism of indigenous society and culture, and praises the Western culture and values. James Mill, Vincent Smith etc., followed this approach. Nationalist Approach evolved as a response to and in confrontation with the colonial approach. Before independence, this school dealt with the ancient and medieval periods of Indian history, and not the modern period. After independence this school focused on modern India. R.C. Majumdar and Tara Chand belonged to this school. Marxist Approach focuses on the primary contradiction between the interests of the colonial masters and the native subjects. It also takes notice of the inner contradictions between the different sections of Indian society. R.P. Dutt and A.R. Desai were noted Marxist historians of India. Subaltern Approach takes the position that the entire tradition of Indian historiography has an elitist bias and the role of the common masses has been neglected. Ranajit Guha belonged to this school. Communalist Approach views Hindus and Muslims as permanently hostile groups whose interests are mutually different and antagonistic to each other.  20 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Cambridge School envisages Indian nationalism as a product of conflicts among the Indians themselves for getting the benefits from the British rulers. For them Indian nationalist leaders were inspired by the greed of power and material benefits. Liberal and Neo-liberal Interpretations imply that the economic exploitation of the colonies was not beneficial to the people of Britain as it delayed the development of the ‘new’ industries in Britain. Feminist Historiography focuses on areas of research that analyse colonial structures, such as the legal structure, which affected women’s lives. It also focuses on women’s vulnerability due to the denial of ownership of productive resources.  UNIT Advent of Eur opeans and Europeans 2 Consolidation of British Power in India Advent of the Europeans in India India on the Eve of British Conquest Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India Though we talk of ancient, medieval and modern periods in history, history is a continuity. It is not always easy to distinguish clearly when one period ends and another begins. So if we think of the history of modern India as beginning with the advent of the Europeans, we need to go back to what is generally considered the medieval period, i.e., the fifteenth century itself. Indeed to a time even before the Mughals came and established their empire. 21  22 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India The Portuguese in India The Quest for and Discovery of a Sea Route to India After the decline of the Roman Empire in the seventh century, the Arabs had established their domination in Egypt and Persia. Direct contact between the Europeans and India declined and, with that, the easy accessibility to the Indian commodities like spices, calicoes, silk, and various precious stones that were greatly in demand was affected. In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, who were on the ascendant. Merchandise from India went to the European markets through Arab Muslim intermediaries. The Red Sea trade route was a state monopoly from which Islamic rulers earned tremendous revenues. The land routes to India were also controlled by the Arabs. In the circumstances, the Europeans were keen to find a direct sea route to India. Fifteenth-century Europe was gripped by the spirit of the Renaissance with its call for exploration. At the same time, Europe made great advances in the art of ship-building and navigation. Hence, there was an eagerness all over Europe for adventurous sea voyages to reach the unknown corners of the East. The economic development of many regions of Europe was also progressing rapidly with expansion of land under cultivation, the introduction of an improved plough, scientific crop management such as crop rotation, and increased supply of meat (which called for spices for cooking as well as for preservation). Prosperity also grew and with it the demand for oriental luxury goods also increased. Venice and Genoa which had earlier prospered through trade in oriental goods were too small to take on the mighty Ottoman Turks or to take up major exploration on their own. The north Europeans were ready to aid Portugal and Spain with money and men, even as the Genoese were ready to provide ships and technical knowledge. It is also to be noted that Portugal had assumed the leadership in Christendom’s  Advent of the Europeans in India ✫ 23 resistance to Islam even as it had taken on itself the spirit of exploration that had characterised the Genoese. Historians have observed that the idea of finding an ocean route to India had become an obsession for Prince Henry of Portugal, who was nicknamed the ‘Navigator’; also, he was keen to find a way to circumvent the Muslim domination of the eastern Mediterranean and all the routes that connected India to Europe. Pope Nicholas V gave Prince Henry a bull in 1454, conferring on him the right to navigate the “sea to the distant shores of the Orient”, more specifically “as far as India” in an attempt to fight Islamic influence and spread the Christian faith. However, Prince Henry died before his dream became a reality. In 1497, under the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the rulers of Portugal and Spain divided the non-Christian world between them by an imaginary line in the Atlantic, some 1,300 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands. Under the treaty, Portugal could claim and occupy everything to the east of the line while Spain could claim everything to the west. The situation was thus prepared for the Portuguese incursions into the waters around India. It was in 1487 that the Portuguese navigator, Bartholomew Dias, rounded the Cape of Good Hope in Africa and sailed up the eastern coast; he was well convinced that the long sought after sea route to India had been found. But it was only ten years later that an expedition of Portuguese ships set out for India (in 1497) and arrived in India in slightly less than eleven months’ time, in May 1498. From Trading to Ruling Vasco Da Gama The arrival of three ships under Vasco Da Gama, led by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid, at Calicut in May 1498 profoundly affected the course of Indian history. The Hindu ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin (Samuthiri), however, had no apprehensions as to the European’s intentions. As the prosperity of his kingdom was due to Calicut’s position as an entrepot,  24 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India he accorded a friendly reception to Vasco Da Gama. The Arab traders, who had a good business on the Malabar coast were apprehensive and were not keen on the Portuguese getting a hold there. For centuries, the trading system in the Indian Ocean had had numerous participants—Indians, Arabs, Africans from the east coast, Chinese, Javanese, among others—but these participants had acted according to some tacit rules of conduct and none had sought overwhelming dominance though all were in it for profit. The Portuguese changed that: they wanted to monopolise the hugely profitable eastern trade by excluding competitors, especially the Arabs. Vasco da Gama stayed in India for three months. When he returned to Portugal, he carried back with him a rich cargo and sold the merchandise in the European market at a huge profit. The importance of direct access to the pepper trade was made clear by the fact that elsewhere the Europeans, who had to buy through Muslim midd