Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior (4th Edition) PDF

pas82760_fm_i-xxxvi 9/21/07 3:54 AM Page iii 107:MHIY036:pas82760_fm: Psychology The Science of Mind and Behavior Fourth Edition Michael W....

pas82760_fm_i-xxxvi 9/21/07 3:54 AM Page iii 107:MHIY036:pas82760_fm: Psychology The Science of Mind and Behavior Fourth Edition Michael W. Passer University of Washington Ronald E. Smith University of Washington Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 1 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) 1 CHAPTER ONE The Science of Psychology CHAPTER OUTLINE THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Love and Marriage in Eleven Cultures Psychology as a Basic and Applied Science The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution The Goals of Psychology Psychology’s Broad Scope: A Levels-of-Analysis USING LEVELS OF ANALYSIS TO INTEGRATE THE Framework PERSPECTIVES PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOR An Example: Understanding Depression Summary of Major Themes Psychology’s Intellectual Roots BENEATH THE SURFACE What Did You Expect? Early Schools: Structuralism and Functionalism The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within PSYCHOLOGY TODAY The Behavioral Perspective: The Power of the A Global Science and Profession Environment Psychology and Public Policy WHAT DO YOU THINK? Are the Students Lazy? Psychology and Your Life The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Enhance Your Positive Psychology Academic Performance The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human 1 pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 2 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) Perhaps the most fascinating and mysterious universe of all is the one within us. +CARL SAGAN aiting in line at the theater, Ray put his arms around Kira and playfully kissed her cheek. W “Remember that party where we met last year?” he asked. “You caught my eye the moment you walked into the room.” “Sure,” Kira laughed, “but you were so shy. Your friends practically had to drag you over to talk to me! You’re lucky I’m so outgoing.” Ray knew he was shy, especially around women, yet he wasn’t sure why. He had been too nervous to enjoy the few dates he had gone on in high school. During his first semester at college, he met a few women he really liked but was afraid to ask them out. He didn’t make many male friends either, and by winter the loneliness was getting to him. He became mildly depressed, he couldn’t sleep well, and his schoolwork suffered. After a good visit with his family during spring break, Ray turned things around. He studied hard, did well on his tests, and made friends with some guys in the dorm. His mood improved, and toward the end of the semester he met Kira. Attracted to Ray and sensing both his shyness and his interest, Kira asked Ray out. Now dating Kira for a year and doing well in school, Ray is happy and self-confident. He and Kira have even talked about getting married after they graduate. THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY better-informed consumer of the many claims made in the name of psychology. For one thing, this  Focus 1 Why are some individuals shy and others outgo- course will teach you that many widely held beliefs What is psychology’s focus? In ing? What causes people, such as Kira and Ray, to about behavior are inaccurate. Can you distinguish science and daily life, what does become attracted to one another and fall in love? the valid claims from the invalid ones in Table 1.1? critical thinking involve, and why is it important? (These focus Can we predict which relationships will last? Perhaps even more important than the con- questions will help you identify Why is it that we remember a first date from long cepts you learn in this course will be the habits of key concepts as you read, study, ago yet forget information during a test that we thought that you acquire—habits that involve and review; they also tie in with studied for only hours before? How and where in critical thinking. Critical thinking involves taking the “Learning Objectives” in the Online Learning Center and other the brain are memories stored? Why did Ray be- an active role in understanding the world around supplements.) come depressed? Was it his lack of a social life, or you, rather than merely receiving information. It’s was something else going on? important to reflect on what that information Welcome to psychology, the discipline that means, how it fits in with your experiences, and studies all of these questions and countless more. its implications for your life and society. Critical We can define psychology as the scientific study of thinking also means evaluating the validity of behavior and the mind. The term behavior refers to ac- something presented to you as fact. For example, tions and responses that we can directly observe, when someone tells you a new “fact,” ask yourself whereas the term mind refers to internal states and the following questions: processes—such as thoughts and feelings—that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred What exactly are you asking me to believe? from observable, measurable responses. For exam- How do you know? What is the evidence? ple, we cannot see Ray’s feeling of loneliness di- Are there other possible explanations? rectly. Instead, we must infer how Ray feels based What is the most reasonable conclusion? on his verbal statement that he is lonely. Because behavior is so complex, its scientific We hope that after completing this course you study poses special challenges. As you become will be more cautious about accepting psycholog- familiar with the kinds of evidence necessary to ical claims and less likely to form simplistic judg- validate scientific conclusions, you will become a ments about why people behave and think as they 2 pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 3 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 3 do. These critical-thinking skills will serve you TABLE 1.1 Widely Held Beliefs about Behavior: Fact or Fiction? well in many areas of your life. In this book, we hope to share with you our Directions: Decide whether each statement is true or false. enthusiasm about psychology. As you will see, psychology relates to virtually every aspect of 1. Most people with exceptionally high IQs are well adjusted in other areas of their life. your life. Psychological research provides us with 2. In romantic relationships, opposites usually attract. a greater understanding of ourselves and with powerful tools to improve our lives and promote 3. Overall, married adults are happier than adults who aren’t married. human welfare. 4. In general, we only use about 10 percent of our brain. 5. A person who is innocent of a crime has nothing to fear from a lie detector test. 6. People who commit suicide usually have signaled to others their intention to do so. PSYCHOLOGY AS A BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE 7. If you feel that your initial answer on a multiple-choice test is wrong, leave it alone; students usually lose points by changing answers. Science involves two types of research: basic re- 8. On some types of mental tasks, people perform better when they are 70 years old than search, which reflects the quest for knowledge purely when they are 20 years old. for its own sake, and applied research, which is de- 9. Usually, it is safe to awaken someone who is sleepwalking. signed to solve specific, practical problems. For psy- chologists, most basic research examines how and 10. A schizophrenic is a person who has two or more distinct personalities, hence the term why people behave, think, and feel the way they split personality. do. Basic research may be carried out in laborato- ries or real-world settings, with human partici- better than random guessing.) pants or other species. Psychologists who study items are false. (If you correctly answered 9 or 10 of these items, you’ve done significantly other species usually attempt to discover princi- Answers: Items 1, 3, 6, 8, and 9 are supported by psychological research. The remaining ples that ultimately will shed light on human be- havior, but some study animal behavior for its own sake. In applied research, psychologists often created several small emergencies to test a final  Focus 2 use basic scientific knowledge to design, imple- How do basic and applied hypothesis—that placing hostile groups in situa- ment, and assess intervention programs. Consider research differ? Explain how tions requiring cooperation to attain important, the following examples. knowledge from basic research common goals would reduce intergroup conflict. helps solve practical problems. In one “emergency,” a heavy truck bringing food Robber’s Cave and the Jigsaw Classroom to the hungry boys supposedly stalled, forcing the How do hostility and prejudice develop between Eagles and Rattlers to pool their strength and tow groups, and what can be done to reduce them? In it with a rope to get it started. This and other co- today’s multicultural world, where religious and operative experiences gradually reduced hostility ethnic groups often clash, this question has great between the groups, and many new friendships importance. developed. To provide an answer, psychologists conduct The Robber’s Cave study, which has since be- basic research on factors that increase and reduce come a classic (that is, an older but widely known intergroup hostility. In one experiment, researchers and influential study), represents basic research divided 11-year-old boys into two groups when the because its goal was to discover general principles boys arrived at a summer camp in Robber’s Cave, of intergroup conflict, not to solve some preexist- Oklahoma (Sherif et al., 1961). The groups, named ing problem. Prejudice between the Eagles and the “Eagles” and “Rattlers,” lived in separate cab- Rattlers did not exist from the outset; rather, the ins but did all other activities together. Initially, researchers created it. They showed that hostility they got along well. could be bred by competition and reduced by To test the hypothesis that competition would making hostile groups dependent on one another breed intergroup hostility, the researchers began to reach a common goal. But could this principle, to pit the Eagles and Rattlers against one another derived from basic research, also be applied to in athletic and other contests. As predicted, hostil- real-life situations? ity soon developed between the groups. Next the Years later, during a stormy desegregation of researchers examined whether conflict could be public schools in Texas, psychologist Elliot Aron- reduced by having the two groups share enjoy- son and his coworkers (1978) developed and eval- able activities, such as watching movies together. uated a classroom procedure called the “jigsaw Surprisingly, these activities only bred more program.” This program, which is now widely taunting and fighting. The researchers then used to foster cooperation among children, pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 4 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) 4 CHAPTER 1 involves creating multiethnic groups of five or six 2. To understand the causes of these behaviors children who are assigned to prepare for an up- 3. To predict how people and animals will coming test on, for example, the life of Abraham behave under certain conditions Lincoln. Within the groups, each child is given a 4. To influence behavior through the control of piece of the total knowledge to be learned. One its causes child has information about Lincoln’s childhood, another about his political career, and so on. To 5. To apply psychological knowledge in ways pass the test, group members must fit their that enhance human welfare knowledge pieces together as if working on a jig- In the Robber’s Cave study, the researchers saw puzzle. Each child must teach the others his carefully observed the boys’ behavior under vari- or her piece of knowledge. Like the children at ous conditions (description). They believed that Robber’s Cave, students learn that to succeed competition would cause intergroup hostility and they must work together (Figure 1.1). that cooperation could reduce it (tentative under- The jigsaw technique and other cooperative standing). To test whether their understanding learning programs have been evaluated in hun- was correct, they predicted that competition dreds of classrooms, with encouraging results would create hostility between the Eagles and (Aronson, 2004). Children’s liking for one another Rattlers and that cooperation would reduce this generally increases, prejudice decreases, and self- conflict (prediction). Next they controlled the esteem and school achievement improve. Cooper- camp setting, first by pitting the Eagles and Rattlers ative learning programs show how basic research, against one another in contests and then by such as the Robber’s Cave experiment, provide a arranging situations that forced the groups to co- foundation for designing intervention programs. operate (influence). As predicted, competition We will see many other examples of how basic re- produced hostility and cooperation reduced it, search provides knowledge that not only satisfies suggesting that the researchers’ understanding our desire to understand our world but also can was correct. Later, when Aronson and his cowork- be applied to solve practical problems. ers sought to reduce racial hostility within newly integrated schools, they had a scientific basis for THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY predicting what might work. They were able to apply their knowledge successfully in the form of  Focus 3 As a science, psychology has five central goals: the jigsaw program (application). Identify the major goals of psy- chology. Describe the levels-of- 1. To describe how people and other species analysis framework. behave PSYCHOLOGY’S BROAD SCOPE: A LEVELS-OF-ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK The scope of modern psychology stretches from the borders of medicine and the biological sci- ences to those of the social sciences (Figure 1.2). Because we are biological creatures living in a complex social world, psychologists study an amazing array of factors to understand why peo- ple behave, think, and feel as they do. At times, this diversity of factors may seem a bit over- whelming, but we would like to provide you with a framework that will greatly simplify matters. We call it levels of analysis: behavior and its causes can be examined at the biological level (e.g., brain processes, genetic influences), the psychological level (e.g., our thoughts, feelings, and motives), and the environmental level (e.g., past and current physical and social environments to which we are exposed). Here is a brief example of how the levels-of- FIGURE 1.1 analysis framework can be applied. Consider a The jigsaw classroom, designed by psychologist Elliot Aronson, was inspired by basic research that showed behavior that you engage in every day: eating how mutual dependence and cooperation among hostile groups can reduce intergroup hostility. Aronson’s (Figure 1.3). At the biological level of analysis, applied research had similar positive effects within racially integrated classrooms. various chemicals, neural circuits, and structures pas82760_ch01_001-026 9/19/07 8:36 PM Page 5 107:MHIY036:pas82760_ch01: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 5 in your brain respond to bodily signals and help regulate whether you feel hungry or full. At the psychological level of analysis, your Biology Scientific study moods, food preferences, and motives affect of life processes eating. Do you ever eat when you’re not hungry, and biological perhaps because you feel stressed or bored? The structures environmental level of analysis calls attention to Medicine Scientific study Anthropology specific stimuli (such as the appearance or of health and the Scientific study aroma of different foods) that may trigger eating of cultural origins, causes and and to cultural customs that influence our food treatment Psychology evolution, and preferences. Does the aroma of freshly baked of diseases Scientific study variations treats ever make your stomach growl? How of behavior and mental processes about the sight of duck feet or a mound of fish gills on a plate? To most Westerners, duck feet and fish gills may not be appetizing, but during Computer Science Sociology a stay in China we discovered that our hosts Scientific study FIGURE 1.3 Scientific study considered them delicious. of information of human social (left) Biological level. This rat processing and relations and weighs about triple the weight of a manipulations systems normal rat. As we (or rats) eat, Mind-Body and Nature-Nurture Interactions of data hunger decreases as certain brain Form a mental picture of a favorite food, and you regions regulate the sensation of may trigger a hunger pang. Focus on positive FIGURE 1.2 becoming full. Those regions in this rat’s brain have been damaged, thoughts when facing a challenging situation, and Psychology as a scientific hub. Psychology links with and over- causing it to overeat and become you may keep your bodily arousal in check. Dwell laps many sciences. obese. (center ) Psychological instead on negative thoughts, and you can rapidly level. At times we may eat out of stimulate the release of stress hormones (Borod, and the functioning of other bodily systems. habit, stress, or boredom. With candy bar in hand and other can- 2000). These examples illustrate what tradition- Mind-body interactions focus our attention on the dies lined up, this student is ready ally have been called mind-body interactions—the fascinating interplay between the psychological for some autopilot munching. (right) relations between mental processes in the brain and biological levels of analysis. This topic has a Environmental level. Does a plateful of insect-topped crackers sound appetizing to you? Cultural norms influence food preferences. The Biological Level The Psychological Level The Environmental Level pas82760_ch01_001-026 9/19/07 8:37 PM Page 6 107:MHIY036:pas82760_ch01: 6 CHAPTER 1 long history within psychology, and, as you will PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOR see throughout the textbook, it remains one of psychology’s most exciting frontiers. The fact that psychologists study biological, psy- The levels-of-analysis framework also ad- chological, and environmental factors that influ- dresses an issue that has been debated since antiq- ence behavior is not new; it has been an integral uity: Is our behavior primarily shaped by nature part of psychology’s history. But just how did psy-  Focus 4 (our biological endowment) or by nurture (our chology’s scope become so broad? In part, it hap- Discuss psychology’s philosophi- environment and learning history)? The pendu- pened because psychology has roots in such var- cal and scientific roots, earliest lum has swung toward one end or the other at dif- schools of thought, and founders. ied disciplines as philosophy, medicine, and the ferent times in history, but today growing interest biological and physical sciences. As a result, dif- in cultural influences and advances in genetics ferent ways of viewing people, called perspectives, and brain research keep the nature-nurture became part of psychology’s intellectual tradi- pendulum in a more balanced position. tions (Figure 1.4). Perhaps most important, modern research in- If you have ever met someone who views the creasingly reveals that nature and nurture interact world differently from the way you do, you know (Moffitt et al., 2006). Just as our biological capaci- that perspectives matter. Perspectives serve as ties affect how we behave and experience the lenses through which psychologists examine and world, our experiences influence our biological interpret behavior. In science, new perspectives capacities. For humans and rats alike, continually are engines of progress. Advances occur as exist- depriving a newborn of physical contact, or pro- ing beliefs are challenged, a debate ensues, and viding a newborn with an enriched environment scientists seek new evidence to resolve the debate. in which to grow, can influence its brain function- Sometimes, the best-supported elements of con- ing and biological development (Rosenzweig, trasting perspectives are merged into a new 1984). Thus, while it may be tempting to take framework, which in turn will be challenged by sides, “nature or nurture?” usually is the wrong still newer viewpoints. question. As the levels-of-analysis framework im- Psychology’s major perspectives guide us plies, nature, nurture, and psychological factors through its intellectual traditions and address must all be taken into account to gain the fullest timeless questions about human nature. To better understanding of behavior. Later in the chapter, understand how these perspectives evolved, let’s we’ll provide a more detailed example of how briefly examine psychology’s roots. looking at behavior from multiple levels enhances our understanding. PSYCHOLOGY’S INTELLECTUAL ROOTS Humans have long sought to understand them- selves, and at the center of this quest lies an issue IN REVIEW that has tested the best minds of the ages, the so- called mind-body problem. Is the mind—the inner  Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and agent of consciousness and thought—a spiritual the mind. The term behavior refers to actions and entity separate from the body, or is it a part of the responses that can be observed and measured body’s activities? directly. In contrast, mental processes such as Many early philosophers held a position of thoughts and feelings must be inferred from di- mind-body dualism, the belief that the mind is a rectly observable responses. spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body. But if the mind is not composed of phys-  Basic research reflects the quest for knowledge ical matter, how could it become aware of bodily for its own sake. Applied research focuses on sensations, and how could its thoughts exert con- solving practical problems. trol over bodily functions? French philosopher,  The primary goals of psychological science are to mathematician, and scientist René Descartes describe, understand, predict, and influence be- (1596–1650) proposed that the mind and body in- havior and to apply psychological knowledge to teract through the tiny pineal gland in the brain. enhance human welfare. Although Descartes placed the mind within the  To understand more fully why people act, think, brain, he maintained that the mind was a spiri- and feel as they do, psychologists examine behav- tual, nonmaterial entity. Dualism implies that no ior at the biological, the psychological, and the amount of research on the physical body (includ- environmental levels of analysis. ing the brain) could ever hope to unravel the mys- teries of the nonphysical mind. pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 7 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 7 An alternative view, monism (from the by studying other species. By the late 1800s, a con- Greek word monos, meaning “one”), holds that vergence of intellectual forces provided the impe- mind and body are one and that the mind is not a sep- tus for psychology’s birth. arate spiritual entity. To monists, mental events are simply a product of physical events in the EARLY SCHOOLS: STRUCTURALISM AND brain, a position advocated by English philoso- pher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). Monism FUNCTIONALISM helped set the stage for psychology because it The infant science of psychology emerged in 1879, implied that the mind could be studied by meas- when Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) established the uring physical processes within the brain. The first experimental psychology laboratory at the stage was further set by John Locke (1632–1704) University of Leipzig in Germany. Wundt, who and other philosophers from the school of helped train the first generation of scientific British empiricism, which held that all ideas and psychologists, wanted to model the study of the knowledge are gained empirically—that is, through mind after the natural sciences (Figure 1.5). He be- FIGURE 1.4 the senses. According to the empiricists, observa- lieved that the mind could be studied by breaking Youth and beauty? Or maturity tion is a more valid approach to knowledge than it down into its basic components, as a chemist and wisdom? What we perceive is reason, because reason is fraught with the po- might do in studying a complex chemical com- depends on our perspective. If you tential for error. This idea bolstered the develop- pound. One of his graduate students, Englishman examine this drawing, you will see either a young woman or an old ment of modern science, whose methods are Edward Titchener (1867–1927), later established a one. Now try changing your per- rooted in empirical observation. psychology laboratory in the United States at Cor- spective. The ear and necklace of Discoveries in physiology (an area of biol- nell University. Like Wundt, Titchener attempted the young woman are the left eye ogy that examines bodily functioning) and to identify the basic building blocks, or structures, and mouth of the old woman. medicine also paved the way for psychology’s of the mind. Wundt and Titchener’s approach emergence. By 1870, European researchers were came to be known as structuralism, the analysis of electrically stimulating the brains of laboratory the mind in terms of its basic elements. animals and mapping the surface areas that In their experiments, structuralists used the controlled various body movements. During method of introspection (“looking within”) to study this same period, medical reports linked dam- sensations, which they considered the basic ele- age in different areas of patients’ brains with ments of consciousness. They exposed participants various behavioral and mental impairments. For to all sorts of sensory stimuli—lights, sounds, example, damage to a specific region on the tastes—and trained them to describe their inner ex- brain’s left side impaired people’s ability to periences. Although this method of studying the speak fluently. mind was criticized and died out after a few Mounting evidence of the relation between decades, the structuralists left an important mark on brain and behavior supported the view that em- the infant field of psychology by establishing a sci- pirical methods of the natural sciences could also entific tradition for the study of cognitive processes. be used to study mental processes. Indeed, by the In the United States, structuralism eventually mid-1800s, German scientists were measuring gave way to functionalism, which held that psychol- people’s sensory responses to many types of ogy should study the functions of consciousness rather physical stimuli (for example, how the perceived than its structure. Here’s a rough analogy to explain loudness of a sound changes as its physical inten- the difference between structuralism and function- sity increases). Their experiments established a alism: Consider your arms and hands. A structural- new field called psychophysics, the study of how ist would try to explain their movement by studying psychologically experienced sensations depend how muscles, tendons, and bones operate. In con- on the characteristics of physical stimuli. trast, a functionalist would ask, “Why do we have Around this time, Charles Darwin’s (1809– arms and hands? How do they help us adapt to our 1882) theory of evolution generated shock waves environment?” The functionalists asked similar that are still felt today. His theory, which we will questions about mental processes and behavior. In discuss later, was vigorously opposed because it part, they were influenced by Darwin’s evolution- seemed to contradict philosophical and religious ary theory, which stressed the importance of adapta- beliefs about the exalted nature of human beings. tion in helping organisms survive and reproduce in FIGURE 1.5 Evolution implied that the human mind was not a their environment. Functionalists did much of the At the University of Leipzig in 1879, spiritual entity but rather the product of a biolog- early research on learning and problem solving. Wilhelm Wundt (far right) estab- ical continuity between humans and other William James (1842–1910), a leader in the func- lished the first laboratory of experi- species. Moreover, Darwin’s theory implied that tionalist movement, was a “big-picture” person mental psychology to study the scientists might gain insight about human behavior who taught courses in physiology, psychology, and structure of the mind. pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 8 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) 8 CHAPTER 1 philosophy at Harvard University (Figure 1.6). Freud became convinced that an unconscious James’s broad functionalist approach helped part of the mind profoundly influences behavior, widen the scope of psychology to include the study and he developed a theory and a form of psy- of various biological processes, mental processes, chotherapy called psychoanalysis—the analysis of and behaviors. Like Wundt, James helped train internal and primarily unconscious psychological forces. psychologists who went on to distinguished ca- He also proposed that humans have powerful in- reers. Among them was Mary Whiton Calkins born sexual and aggressive drives and that because (1863–1930), who became the first female president these desires are punished in childhood, we learn of the American Psychological Association in 1905 to fear them and become anxious when we are (Figure 1.7). aware of their presence. This leads us to develop Although functionalism no longer exists as a defense mechanisms, which are psychological tech- school of thought within psychology, its tradition niques that help us cope with anxiety and the pain of endures in two modern-day fields: cognitive psy- traumatic experiences. Repression, a primary defense FIGURE 1.6 chology, which studies mental processes, and mechanism, protects us by keeping unacceptable William James, a leader of func- evolutionary psychology, which emphasizes the impulses, feelings, and memories in the uncon- tionalism, helped establish psychol- adaptiveness of behavior. scious depths of the mind. All behavior, whether ogy in North America. His multivol- normal or “abnormal,” reflects a largely uncon- ume book, Principles of Psychology (1890/1950), greatly expanded the scious and inevitable conflict between the defenses scope of psychology. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: and internal impulses. This ongoing psychological THE FORCES WITHIN struggle between conflicting forces is dynamic in nature, hence the term psychodynamic. To explain Have you ever been mystified by why you behaved Ray’s extreme shyness around women, Freud or felt a certain way? Recall the case of Ray, the stu- might have explored whether Ray is unconsciously  Focus 5 dent described at the beginning of the chapter who Describe the psychodynamic afraid of his sexual impulses and therefore avoids could not understand why he was so shy. The psy- perspective. Contrast Freud’s putting himself into dating situations where he psychoanalytic theory with chodynamic perspective searches for the causes of would have to confront those hidden impulses. modern psychodynamic theories. behavior within the inner workings of our personality Freud’s theory became a lightning rod for con- (our unique pattern of traits, emotions, and motives), troversy. Some of his own followers strongly dis- emphasizing the role of unconscious processes. Sigmund agreed with aspects of the theory, especially its Freud (1856–1939) developed the first and most in- heavy emphasis on childhood sexuality. Other fluential psychodynamic theory (Figure 1.8). psychologists viewed the theory as difficult to test. Indeed, Freud opposed laboratory research on psy- Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Great Challenge choanalytic theory, believing that his clinical obser- Late in the 19th century, as a young physician in vations were more valid. Nevertheless, Freud’s ideas Vienna, Freud was intrigued by the workings of did stimulate research on topics such as dreams, the brain. He was confronted with patients who memory, aggression, and mental disorders. A schol- experienced physical symptoms such as blind- arly review of more than 3,000 scientific studies ness, pain, or paralysis without any apparent bod- examining Freud’s ideas found support for some ily cause. Over time he treated patients who had aspects of his theory, whereas other aspects were other problems, such as phobias (intense unrealis- unsupported or contradicted (Fisher & Greenberg, tic fears). Because no disease or bodily malfunc- 1996). But even where Freud’s theory was not sup- tion could explain these conditions, Freud rea- ported, the research it inspired led to important soned that the causes must be psychological. discoveries. In addition, Freud’s work forever Moreover, if his patients were not producing their broadened the face of psychology to include the symptoms consciously, Freud reasoned that the study and treatment of psychological disorders. causes must be hidden from awareness—they must be unconscious. At first Freud treated his Modern Psychodynamic Theory patients by using hypnosis. Later he used a tech- nique called free association, in which the patient Modern psychodynamic theories continue to ex- FIGURE 1.7 expressed any thoughts that came to mind. To plore how unconscious and conscious aspects of Mary Whiton Calkins founded a Freud’s surprise, his patients eventually de- personality influence behavior. However, they psychology laboratory at Wellesley scribed painful and long-“forgotten” childhood downplay the role of hidden sexual and aggres- College, where she taught for over experiences, often sexual in nature. Often, after sive motives and focus more on how early family 30 years. She studied memory and dreams, and in 1905 became the recalling and figuratively reliving these traumatic relationships, other social factors, and our sense of first female president of the childhood experiences, the patients’ symptoms “self” shape our personality (Kohut, 1977). For American Psychological Association. improved. example, psychodynamic object relations theories pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 9 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9 focus on how early experiences with caregivers shape one way in which the environment shapes behav- the views that people form of themselves and others ior: through the association of events with one (Kernberg, 1984, 2000). In turn, these views uncon- another. Pavlov found that dogs automatically sciously influence a person’s relationships with learned to salivate to the sound of a new stimulus, other people throughout life. To explain Ray’s shy- such as a tone, if that stimulus was repeatedly ness, a modern psychodynamic psychologist paired with food. Meanwhile, in the United might examine Ray’s conceptions of himself and States, Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) examined his parents. Ray’s shyness may stem from a fear of how organisms learn through the consequences of rejection of which he is unaware. This fear may be their actions. According to Thorndike’s (1911) law based on conceptions that he developed of his par- of effect, responses followed by satisfying conse- ents as being rejecting and disapproving, views quences become more likely to recur, and those that now unconsciously shape his expectations of followed by unsatisfying consequences become how relationships with women and men will be. less likely to recur. Thus, learning is the key to un- The psychodynamic perspective dominated derstanding how experience molds behavior. FIGURE 1.8 thinking about personality, mental disorders, and Sigmund Freud founded psycho- psychotherapy for the first half of the 20th century, analysis. For more than 50 years, Behaviorism he probed the hidden recesses of and it continues to influence applied and aca- the mind. demic psychology. Among American psycholo- Behaviorism, a school of thought that emphasizes gists who provide therapy, a large group—20 to environmental control of behavior through learning, 30 percent—report their orientation as being psy- began to emerge in 1913. John B. Watson chodynamic. Psychoanalysis also remains a major (1878–1958), who led the new movement, strongly force in European psychology (Tuckett, 2005). opposed the “mentalism” of the structuralists, Links with psychodynamic concepts can be functionalists, and psychoanalysts (Figure 1.9). found within several areas of psychological science. He argued that the proper subject matter of psy- For example, biologically oriented psychologists chology was observable behavior, not unobserv- have identified brain mechanisms that can produce able inner consciousness. Human beings, he said, emotional reactions of which we are consciously un- are products of their learning experiences. So pas- aware (La Bar & LeDoux, 2006), and cognitive scien- sionately did Watson hold this position that in tists have shown that many aspects of information 1924 he issued the following challenge: processing occur outside of awareness (Bargh & Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and Williams, 2006). Thus, while most contemporary psy- my own specialized world to bring them up in and chological scientists reject Freud’s version of the un- I’ll guarantee you to take any one of them at ran- FIGURE 1.9 conscious mind, many support the concept that be- dom and train him to become any type of specialist John B. Watson founded the school haviors can be triggered by nonconscious processes. I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- of behaviorism. He published chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regard- Psychology as a Behaviorist Views THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE: THE less of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, It in 1913. POWER OF THE ENVIRONMENT vocations, and race of his ancestors. (p. 82) The behavioral perspective focuses on the role of the Behaviorists sought to discover the laws that external environment in governing our actions. From govern learning, and in accord with Darwin’s the- this perspective, our behavior is jointly determined ory of evolution, they believed that the same basic by habits learned from previous life experiences principles of learning apply to all organisms. B. F. and by stimuli in our immediate environment. Skinner (1904–1990) was the leading modern fig- ure in behaviorism (Figure 1.10). Although Skin- ner did not deny that thoughts and feelings occur Origins of the Behavioral Perspective within us, he maintained that “No account of what The behavioral perspective is rooted in the philo- is happening inside the human body, no matter  Focus 6 sophical school of British empiricism, which held how complete, will explain the origins of human What are the behavioral perspec- tive’s origins and focus? Contrast that all ideas and knowledge are gained through behavior” (1989b, p. 18). Skinner believed that the radical behaviorism with cogni- the senses. According to the early empiricist John real causes of behavior reside in the outer world tive behaviorism. Locke, at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa— and insisted that “A person does not act upon the a “blank tablet” or “slate”—upon which experi- world, the world acts upon him” (1971, p. 211). His ences are written. In this view, human nature is research, based largely on studies of rats and shaped purely by the environment. pigeons under controlled laboratory conditions, In the early 1900s, experiments by Russian examined how behavior is shaped by the reward- physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) revealed ing and punishing consequences that it produces. pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 10 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) 10 CHAPTER 1 research on learning into the 1960s, challenged psy- chodynamic views about the causes of psy- chological disorders, and led to highly effective treatments for some disorders. But radical behav- iorism’s influence waned after the 1970s as inter- est in studying mental processes expanded (Robins et al., 1999). Nevertheless, behaviorists continue to make important contributions to basic and applied psychology, and their discovery of basic laws of learning was one of the greatest contributions made by American psychology in the 20th century. Cognitive Behaviorism In the 1960s and 1970s, a growing number of psy- chologists showed that cognitive processes such as attention and memory could be rigorously studied FIGURE 1.10 by using sophisticated experiments. This led some B. F. Skinner, a leading behaviorist, argued that mentalistic concepts behaviorists to challenge radical behaviorism’s were not necessary to explain behavior and that learning principles view that mental life was off-limits as a topic for could be used to enhance human welfare. scientific study. They developed a modified view called cognitive behaviorism, which proposes that In the case of our college student, Ray, a be- learning experiences and the environment influence our haviorist might explain Ray’s shyness around expectations and other thoughts, and in turn our women by examining his past dating experiences. thoughts influence how we behave (Bandura, 1969, In high school, the first time Ray invited a girl to a 2002b). Cognitive behaviorism remains an influen- dance he was turned down. Later, he had a crush tial viewpoint to this day (Figure 1.11). on a girl and they went out once, after which she A cognitive behaviorist might say that Ray’s turned him down. Though nervous, he asked out past dating rejections were punishing and led him a few girls after that but was turned down each to expect that further attempts at romance would time. Such punishing consequences decreased the be doomed. In turn, these expectations of social likelihood that Ray would ask someone out in the rejection inhibited him from asking women out future. Fortunately, Kira asked Ray out, and and even from making male friends. While at the positive consequences they experienced on home for spring break, family discussions helped their first date reinforced their behavior, increas- Ray think about his situation in a new light. This ing the odds that they would go out again. helped Ray modify his behavior, become more Skinner believed that society could harness outgoing, and improve his social relationships. the power of the environment to change behavior in beneficial ways and that the chief barrier to cre- ating a better world through “social engineering” What Do You Think? is an outmoded conception of people as free ARE THE STUDENTS LAZY? agents. Skinner’s approach, known as radical be- Imagine that you are a high school teacher. Whenever haviorism, was considered extreme by many psy- you try to engage your students in a class discussion, chologists, but he was esteemed for his scientific they gaze into space and hardly say anything. You start contributions and for focusing attention on how to think that they’re just a bunch of lazy kids. From a environmental forces could be used to enhance radical behavioral perspective, is your conclusion rea- human welfare. In the 1960s behaviorism inspired sonable? How might you improve the situation? (Think powerful techniques known collectively as behavior about it, then see page 26). modification. These techniques, aimed at decreasing problem behaviors and increasing positive be- haviors by manipulating environmental factors, THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE: are still used widely today (Miltenberger, 2007). SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND POSITIVE FIGURE 1.11 Behaviorism’s insistence that psychology should focus only on observable stimuli and re- PSYCHOLOGY Albert Bandura has played a key role in developing cognitive behav- sponses resonated with many who wanted this In the mid-20th century, as the psychodynamic iorism, which merges the behavioral young science to model itself on the natural sci- and behavioral perspectives vied for intellectual and cognitive perspectives. ences. Behaviorism dominated North American dominance within psychology, a new viewpoint pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 11 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 11 arose to challenge them both. Known as the Ray wisely found another way to satisfy what  Focus 7 humanistic perspective (or humanism), it empha- Maslow (1954) called “belongingness,” our basic hu- How does humanism’s sized free will, personal growth, and the attempt to find man need for social acceptance and companionship. conception of human nature differ from that advanced by meaning in one’s existence. Few early humanists were scientists and, his- psychodynamic theory and Humanists rejected psychodynamic concepts torically, humanism has had a more limited impact behaviorism? of humans as being controlled by unconscious on mainstream psychological science than have forces. They also denied behaviorism’s view of other perspectives. Still, it has inspired impor- humans as reactors molded by the environment. tant areas of research. Humanist Carl Rogers Instead, humanistic theorists such as Abraham (1902–1987) pioneered the scientific study of psy- Maslow (1908–1970) proposed that each of us has chotherapy. In the 1940s and 1950s, his research an inborn force toward self-actualization, the reach- group was the first to audiotape counseling ses- ing of one’s individual potential (Figure 1.12). sions and analyze their content. Rogers (1967) iden- When the human personality develops in a sup- tified key processes that led to constructive changes portive environment, the positive inner nature of in clients. As another example, psychologists have a person emerges. In contrast, misery and pathol- conducted many studies of self-concept over the ogy occur when environments frustrate our innate past 25 years, and much of this work incorporates tendency toward self-actualization. Humanists humanistic ideas (Verplanken & Holland, 2002). emphasized the importance of personal choice Humanism’s focus on self-actualization and and responsibility, personality growth, and posi- growth is also seen in today’s growing positive tive feelings of self-worth. They insisted that the psychology movement, which emphasizes the study meaning of our existence resides squarely in our of human strengths, fulfillment, and optimal living own hands. (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). In contrast to psychol- Thinking about Ray’s shyness and loneliness, a ogy’s long-standing focus on “what’s wrong with humanist might say that no matter how many rejec- our world” (e.g., mental disorders, conflict, preju- tions Ray has had in the past, he must take personal dice), positive psychology examines how we can responsibility for turning things around. A human- nurture what is best within ourselves and society ist also might wonder whether, in his freshman year, to create a happy and fulfilling life. Ray’s happiness and sense of self-worth were rest- ing too heavily on his hope for a good romantic rela- tionship. By focusing on building a few friendships, THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: THE THINKING HUMAN Derived from the Latin word cogitare (“to think”), the cognitive perspective examines the nature of the mind and how mental processes influence behavior. In this view, humans are information processors whose actions are governed by thought. Origins of the Cognitive Perspective As discussed earlier, structuralism and function- alism arose as two of psychology’s earliest schools of thought. The structuralists attempted to iden- tify the basic elements, or structure, of conscious-  Focus 8 ness by using the method of introspection. In Describe the focus and the contrast, functionalists explored the purposes of origins of the cognitive perspec- consciousness. Other pioneering cognitive psychol- tive and some areas of modern ogists, such as Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), cognitive science. studied memory. By the 1920s, German scientists had formed a school of thought known as Gestalt psychology, which examined how elements of experience are organized into wholes. The word gestalt may be translated roughly as “whole” or “organization.” FIGURE 1.12 Instead of trying to break consciousness down The humanistic perspective emphasizes the human ability to surmount into its elements, Gestalt psychologists argued obstacles in the drive toward self-actualization. that our perceptions are organized so that “the pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 12 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) 12 CHAPTER 1 gan to adapt to the study of memory and atten- tion (Broadbent, 1958). A new metaphor was developing—the mind as a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information. The information- processing approach to studying the mind con- tinues to be influential. On another front in the 1950s, a heated debate arose between behaviorists and linguists about how children acquire language. The behaviorists, led by B. F. Skinner, claimed that language is acquired through basic principles of learning. The linguists, led by Noam Chomsky (b. 1928), argued that humans are biologically “preprogrammed” to acquire language and that children come to un- derstand language as a set of “mental rules.” This debate convinced many psychologists that lan- guage was too complex to be explained by behav- ioral principles and that it needed to be examined from a more cognitive perspective. Interest in cognition also grew in other areas. FIGURE 1.13 For example, a theory developed by Swiss psy- chologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980), which explained This painting illustrates the Gestalt principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The individual elements are sea how children’s thinking processes become more creatures, but the whole is perceived as a portrait of a face. The sophisticated with age, gained widespread recog- Water, by Arcimboldo, from Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. nition in North America. Overall, psychologists’ in- terest in mental processes swelled by the 1960s and whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Con- 1970s—a period that sometimes is referred to as the sider the painting in Figure 1.13. Many people “cognitive revolution.” initially perceive it as a whole—as a portrait of a strange-looking person—rather than as a mosaic The Modern Cognitive Perspective of individual sea creatures. Gestalt psychology stimulated interest in cognitive topics such as per- Cognitive psychology, which focuses on the study of ception and problem solving. mental processes, embodies the cognitive perspec- Structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt tive. Cognitive psychologists study the processes psychology eventually disappeared as scientific by which people reason and make decisions, de- schools. As behaviorism and its antimentalistic vise solutions to problems, form perceptions and stance rose in the 1920s and 1930s to become the mental images, and produce and understand lan- dominant perspective guiding North American guage. They study the nature of knowledge and research, the study of the mind was relegated to expertise. Some, such as Elizabeth Loftus have the back burner. greatly expanded our understanding of memory and of factors that distort it (Figure 1.14). Cogni- tive psychologists continue to explore the nature Renewed Interest in the Mind of attention and consciousness and have increas- In the 1950s, several factors contributed to a re- ingly become interested in how nonconscious newed interest in studying cognitive processes. In processes influence behavior. part, this interest stemmed from psychologists’ Cognitive neuroscience, which uses sophisti- involvement during World War II in designing cated electrical recording and brain-imaging techniques information displays, such as gauges in airplane to examine brain activity while people engage in cogni- cockpits, that enabled military personnel (e.g., tive tasks, is a rapidly growing area that represents pilots) to recognize and interpret that information the intersection of cognitive psychology and the quickly and accurately. Increasingly, psychologists biological perspective within psychology. Cogni- FIGURE 1.14 began to conduct experiments that reflected an tive neuroscientists seek to determine how the information-processing approach. brain goes about its business of learning lan- Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus studies the nature of memory Computer technology, which was in its infancy guage, acquiring knowledge, forming memories, and how memories become at that time, provided new information-processing and performing other cognitive activities (Posner distorted. concepts and terminology that psychologists be- & Rothbart, 2007b). pas82760_ch01_001-026 8/10/07 12:19 PM Page 13 Techbooks (PPG-Quark) THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 13 Social constructivism, an influential cogni- THE SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE: THE tive viewpoint, maintains that what we consider EMBEDDED HUMAN “reality” is largely our own mental creation, the prod- uct of a shared way of thinking among members Humans are social creatures. Embedded within a of social groups (Gergen, 2000). Constructivists culture, each of us encounters ever changing would maintain, for example, that the long-standing social settings that shape our actions and values, conflict between Israeli Jews and Palestinian our sense of identity, our very conception of real- Arabs reflects immense differences in how they ity. The sociocultural perspective examines how perceive God’s plan for them and how they inter- the social environment and cultural learning influence pret the history of the land where they live our behavior, thoughts, and feelings. (Rouhana & Bar-Tal, 1998). Cultural Learning and Diversity From a cognitive perspective, we might ex- amine Ray’s shyness in terms of how he pays Culture refers to the enduring values, beliefs, behav-  Focus 9 attention to and processes information, his per- iors, and traditions that are shared by a large group of Explain the sociocultural perspective. What are culture, ceptions, and his memory. The few times that he people and passed from one generation to the next. All norms, socialization, and went on dates, Ray’s nervousness may have cultural groups develop their own social norms, individualism-collectivism? caused him to focus on even the slightest things which are rules (often unwritten) that specify what be- that weren’t going well, while failing to notice havior is acceptable and expected for members of that other cues that suggested his date was having a group. Norms exist for all types of social behav- good time. Ray’s interpretation of his past dating iors, such as how to dress, respond to people of failures may also be based on faulty reasoning. higher status, or act as a woman or man (Figure Ray believes he was rejected because of his 1.15). For culture to endure, each new generation personal qualities (“I’m not attractive or interest- must internalize, or adopt, the norms and values ing enough”) and therefore expects that future of the group as their own. Socialization is the dating attempts will also be unsuccessful. If Ray process by which culture is transmitted to new mem- correctly attributed the rejections to some tempo- bers and internalized by them. rary or situational factor (“Clarissa was already Psychologists have long recognized culture’s interested in someone else”), then he would not impact in shaping who we are (Miller & Dollard, necessarily expect other women to reject him in 1941). Yet despite acknowledging culture’s impor- the future. A cognitive psychologist also might tance, throughout much of the 20th century psy- ask whether Ray’s memories of his past dating chological research la