Biology Past Paper PDF

#separator:tab #html:false Central Dogma → [...] ⇒ [...] ⇒ [...] Central Dogma → DNA ⇒ mRNA ⇒ Proteins DNA → Stores Information Transcription → DNA is copied into an mRNA Sequence mRNA → Temporarily carries the information Translation → NA information is used to make Proteins Proteins → C...

#separator:tab #html:false Central Dogma → [...] ⇒ [...] ⇒ [...] Central Dogma → DNA ⇒ mRNA ⇒ Proteins DNA → Stores Information Transcription → DNA is copied into an mRNA Sequence mRNA → Temporarily carries the information Translation → NA information is used to make Proteins Proteins → Carry out cellular functions [...] → Complete set of genetic material present in an organism Genome → Complete set of genetic material present in an organism [...] → Code for ≥1 specific proteins/RNAs that have structural, catalytic, or regulatory activities Genes → Code for ≥1 specific proteins/RNAs that have structural, catalytic, or regulatory activities What % of Human Genome is Protein Coding (Exons)? → [...] What % of Human Genome is Protein Coding (Exons)? → ~1.5% What % of Human Genome is Repetitive DNA? → [...] What % of Human Genome is Repetitive DNA? → ~59% What % of Human Genome is Unique Non-Coding Sequences? → [...] What % of Human Genome is Unique Non-Coding Sequences? → ~39% What % of Human Genome is Unique Non-Coding Sequences that are Associated with Genes (Introns and Regulatory Sequences)? → [...] What % of Human Genome is Unique Non-Coding Sequences that are Associated with Genes (Introns and Regulatory Sequences)? → ~24% What % of Human Genome is Unique Non-Coding Sequences with Unknown Function? → [...] What % of Human Genome is Unique Non-Coding Sequences with Unknown Function? → ~15% [...] → An individual’s collection of alleles Genotype → An individual’s collection of alleles [...] → A physical characteristic of an individual Phenotype → A physical characteristic of an individual [...] are Regulatory Sequences found immediately Upstream of genes Promoters are Regulatory Sequences found immediately Upstream of genes Promoters are [...] Sequences found immediately [...] of genes Promoters are Regulatory Sequences found immediately Upstream of genes [...] → DNA Sequence which encodes a Protein/Functional RNA product Coding Region → DNA Sequence which encodes a Protein/Functional RNA product [...] → DNA Sequence without a Protein/Functional RNA product Non-Coding Region → DNA Sequence without a Protein/Functional RNA product What are Exons? → [...] What are Exons? → Coding Sequences, Remain in Mature mRNA What are Introns? → [...] What are Introns? → Non-Coding Sequences, Interspersed between Exons (coding sequences) "Monocistronic mRNA # of Genes per mRNA → [...]# of Translation Initiation Sites → [...]# of Promoters → [...]" "Monocistronic mRNA # of Genes per mRNA → 1# of Translation Initiation Sites → 1# of Promoters → 1" "Polycistronic mRNA # of Genes per mRNA → [...]# of Translation Initiation Sites → [...]# of Promoters → [...]" "Polycistronic mRNA # of Genes per mRNA → >1# of Translation Initiation Sites → >1# of Promoters → 1" Eukaryotic Genes are [Monocistronic / Polycistronic] Eukaryotic Genes are Monocistronic Prokaryotic Genes are [Monocistronic / Polycistronic] Prokaryotic Genes are Polycistronic Eukaryotic Gene Structure → [...] Eukaryotic Gene Structure → 5’ UTR, Promoter, Exons, Introns, 3’ UTR Prokaryotic Gene Structure → [...] Prokaryotic Gene Structure → 5’ UTR, Promoter, Continuous Coding Region, 3’ UTR Prokaryotic Genome consists of [Linear / Circular] DNA Prokaryotic Genome consists of Circular DNA How does the Size of Prokaryotic Genome compare to the Size of Human Nuclear Genome? → [...] How does the Size of Prokaryotic Genome compare to the Size of Human Nuclear Genome? → Prokaryotic Genome is ~1/1000 the size of Human Nuclear Genome Genes are [...] Arranged in the Prokaryotic Genome Genes are Densely Arranged in the Prokaryotic Genome [...] → Smaller Circular Prokaryotic DNAs Plasmids → Smaller Circular Prokaryotic DNAs What type of Replication do Plasmids undergo? → [...] What type of Replication do Plasmids undergo? → Autonomous/Independent Replication Plasmids are used for [...] Plasmids are used for Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bacteria Human Nuclear Genome consists of [Linear / Circular] DNA, Packaged [With / Without] Histones Human Nuclear Genome consists of Linear DNA, Packaged With Histones Genes are [...] Arranged in the Human Nuclear Genome Genes are Sparsely Arranged in the Human Nuclear Genome In the Human Nuclear Genome, the Linear DNA is organized into [...] In the Human Nuclear Genome, the Linear DNA is organized into Discrete Chromosomes Human Mitochondrial Genome consists of [Linear / Circular] DNA, Packaged [With / Without] Histones Human Mitochondrial Genome consists of Circular DNA, Packaged Without Histones "# of mtDNA Copies/Mitochondrion → [...] # of mtDNA Copies/Cell → [...]" "# of mtDNA Copies/Mitochondrion → ≥1 # of mtDNA Copies/Cell → ≥1000" mtDNA is [...] Inherited mtDNA is Maternally Inherited [...] → Short Repeat Sequences that occur one after another (head-to-tail) Tandem Repeats → Short Repeat Sequences that occur one after another (head-to-tail) 3 Types of Tandem Repeats → [...], [...], and [...] 3 Types of Tandem Repeats → Satellite, Mini-Satellite, and Micro-Satellite Length of Satellite DNA Repeats → [...] bp Length of Satellite DNA Repeats → 68-171 bp Length of Mini-Satellite DNA Repeats → [...] bp Length of Mini-Satellite DNA Repeats → 6-64 bp Length of Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats → [...] bp Length of Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats → 2/3/4 bp Location/Function of Satellite DNA Repeats → [...] Location/Function of Satellite DNA Repeats → Centromeres; Structural Function Location/Function of Mini-Satellite DNA Repeats → [...] Location/Function of Mini-Satellite DNA Repeats → Telomeres; Structural Function [...] and [...] DNA Repeats are Polymorphic Mini-Satellite and Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats are Polymorphic Polymorphic = Highly Variable Total Repeat Size Mini-Satellite and Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats are [...] Mini-Satellite and Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats are Polymorphic Polymorphic = Highly Variable Total Repeat Size Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats are also known as [...] and [...] Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats are also known as Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) and Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) No cloze ⁨2⁩ found on card. 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More information Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) can be either [...] or [...] DNA Repeats Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) can be either Mini-Satellite or Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats What can Mini-Satellite and Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats be used for? → [...] What can Mini-Satellite and Micro-Satellite DNA Repeats be used for? → DNA Markers for DNA Fingerprinting and Allele Tracking Telomeric Regions contain a special class of [...] DNA Repeats and are Related to [...] Telomeric Regions contain a special class of Mini-Satellite DNA Repeats and are Related to Aging Process [...] → Longer Repeat Sequences that are distributed in different locations throughout the genome Interspersed Repeats → Longer Repeat Sequences that are distributed in different locations throughout the genome 2 Types of Interspersed Repeats → [...] and [...] 2 Types of Interspersed Repeats → LINEs and SINEs No cloze ⁨2⁩ found on card. Please either add a cloze deletion, or use the Empty Cards tool. 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More information LINEs are derived from [...] or [...] LINEs are derived from Retrotransposons or Retroviruses What is the Significance of LINE-1 Retrotransposons? → [...] What is the Significance of LINE-1 Retrotransposons? → Can “Jump” to new locations, resulting in Mutation Alu Elements are classified as [...] Alu Elements are classified as SINEs [...] → Most Abundant Sequence in Human Genome Alu Elements → Most Abundant Sequence in Human Genome What is the Significance of Alu Elements? → [...] What is the Significance of Alu Elements? → Unequal Crossing-Over leads to Chromosomal Abnormalities "# of Homologous Chromosome Pairs in Human Genome → [...]" "# of Homologous Chromosome Pairs in Human Genome → 23 (2n, Diploid)" "# of Autosomal Chromosome Pairs in Human Genome → [...]" "# of Autosomal Chromosome Pairs in Human Genome → 22" "# of Sex Chromosome Pairs in Human Genome → [...]" "# of Sex Chromosome Pairs in Human Genome → 1 XY (male) or XX (female)" [...] → Same Gene Order, Possibly Different Alleles Homologous Chromosomes → Same Gene Order, Possibly Different Alleles [...] → Same Gene Order, Identical DNA Sequence Sister Chromatids → Same Gene Order, Identical DNA Sequence [...] → Material which makes up chromosomes Chromatin → Material which makes up chromosomes [...] → End Regions of Chromosomes Telomeres → End Regions of Chromosomes Telomere Function → [...] Telomere Function → Protection Against Shortening [...] → Long Arm of Chromosome q-arm → Long Arm of Chromosome [...] → Short Arm of Chromosome p-arm → Short Arm of Chromosome [...] → Internal Region where Sister Chromatids connect Centromeres → Internal Region where Sister Chromatids connect [...] → Region within Bacterial Cells, Contains Chromosome, and is NOT Enclosed by Membrane Nucleoid → Region within Bacterial Cells, Contains Chromosome, and is NOT Enclosed by Membrane Gel Electrophoresis separates [...] and [...] molecules based on their [...] Gel Electrophoresis separates DNA and RNA molecules based on their Size/Molecular Weight In Gel Electrophoresis, [Molecule(s) and Charge] moves towards [Cathode (-) / Anode (+)] In Gel Electrophoresis, DNA/RNA (-) moves towards Anode (+) No cloze ⁨2⁩ found on card. 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More information During Gel Electrophoresis, Smaller Molecules move [...], while Larger Molecules move [...] During Gel Electrophoresis, Smaller Molecules move Faster, while Larger Molecules move Slower After Gel Electrophoresis, Smaller Molecules will be [...] to Anode (+) After Gel Electrophoresis, Smaller Molecules will be Closer to Anode (+) Larger Molecules will be Closer to Cathode (-) / Further from Anode (+) [...] digest DNA by cleaving Phosphodiester Bonds between nucleotides DNA Nucleases digest DNA by cleaving Phosphodiester Bonds between nucleotides DNA Nucleases digest DNA by cleaving [...] between nucleotides DNA Nucleases digest DNA by cleaving Phosphodiester Bonds between nucleotides [...] digest DNA from a Free End Exonucleases digest DNA from a Free End Exonucleases digest DNA from a [...] Exonucleases digest DNA from a Free End [...] digest DNA at an Internal Site Endonucleases digest DNA at an Internal Site Endonucleases digest DNA at an [...] Endonucleases digest DNA at an Internal Site [...] cut DNA at specific Restriction Sites Restriction Endonucleases/Restriction Enzymes cut DNA at specific Restriction Sites Restriction Sites DNA Palindromic Sequences4, 6, 8 bp or longer (even numbers only) Restriction Endonucleases/Restriction Enzymes cut DNA at specific [...] Restriction Endonucleases/Restriction Enzymes cut DNA at specific Restriction Sites Restriction Sites DNA Palindromic Sequences4, 6, 8 bp or longer (even numbers only) Restriction Sites are typically DNA [...] Sequences and have length of [...] or longer ([...] Numbers ONLY) Restriction Sites are typically DNA Palindromic Sequences and have length of 4/6/8 bp or longer (Even Numbers ONLY) Hybridization → Annealing of a [...] of DNA to [...] of [...] DNA molecule Hybridization → Annealing of a Single-Strand of DNA to Complementary Strand of Different DNA molecule [...] → Degree to which mismatches are tolerated in a hybridization reaction Stringency → Degree to which mismatches are tolerated in a hybridization reaction Low vs High Stringency Low Stringency = High Tolerance for Mismatches; Base Sequence has to be just somewhat closeHigh Stringency = Low Tolerance for Mismatches; Bases have to zip-up fairly accurately [...] → DNA Sequence Variants that result in an Alteration of a Genomic DNA Restriction Fragment RFLPs → DNA Sequence Variants that result in an Alteration of a Genomic DNA Restriction Fragment RFLPs are often caused by [...] RFLPs are often caused by SNPs Purpose of Blotting Methods → [...] Purpose of Blotting Methods → To Identify amount of DNA, RNA, or Protein in a sample All 3 Blotting Methods involve [...][...][...] All 3 Blotting Methods involve Seperation via Gel ElectrophoresisTransferring onto MembraneUsing Probe Southern Blotting Target → [...]Probe → [...] Southern Blotting Target → DNAProbe → Complementary DNA Northern Blotting Target → [...]Probe → [...] Northern Blotting Target → RNAProbe → Complementary DNA Western Blotting Target → [...]Probe → [...] Western Blotting Target → ProteinProbe → Antibodies Against Protein Inheritance Pattern of Sickle Cell Disease → [...] Inheritance Pattern of Sickle Cell Disease → Autosomal Recessive (AR) Etiology/Pathophysiology of Sickle Cell Disease → [...] Etiology/Pathophysiology of Sickle Cell Disease → A to T Transversion in HBB Gene (encodes β-Globin) ⇒ E6V Mutation ⇒ Abnormal Hemoglobin (HbS) Normal Hemoglobin = HbA 3 Clinical Features of Sickle Cell Disease → [...], [...], and [...] 3 Clinical Features of Sickle Cell Disease → Hemolytic Anemia, Splenomegaly, and Occlusion of Capillaries 4 Treatment/Management Strategies for Sickle Cell Disease → [...], [...], [...], and [...] 4 Treatment/Management Strategies for Sickle Cell Disease → Hydroxyurea, O2, Transfusion, and Penicillin Sickle Cell Trait occurs in [...] of the sickle cell mutation Sickle Cell Trait occurs in Heterozygous Carriers of the sickle cell mutation [...] occurs in Heterozygous Carriers of the sickle cell mutation Sickle Cell Trait occurs in Heterozygous Carriers of the sickle cell mutation Sickle Cell Trait is mostly [...] Sickle Cell Trait is mostly Asymptomatic In Rare Cases, it can become Symptomatic in Oxidative Stress Conditions Under which rare situations can Sickle Cell Trait become Sympotomatic? → [...] Under which rare situations can Sickle Cell Trait become Sympotomatic? → Oxidative Stress Conditions Cell Cycle Phases → [...], [...], [...], and [...] Cell Cycle Phases → G1, S, G2, and Mitosis G1 Phase Purpose → [...] G1 Phase Purpose → Growth and Metabolism S Phase Purpose → [...] S Phase Purpose → DNA and Chromosome Replication G2 Phase Purpose → [...] G2 Phase Purpose → Growth, Metabolism, and Preparation for Mitosis Mitosis Purpose → [...] Mitosis Purpose → Cell Division and Chromosomes Segregation into Daughter Cells Ploidy Number (n) During Cell Cycle → [...] Ploidy Number (n) During Cell Cycle → 2 n remains Constant throughout Cell Cycle What is the value of DNA Content Number (c) during G1 Phase? → [...] What is the value of DNA Content Number (c) during G1 Phase? → 2 What is the value of DNA Content Number (c) during G2 Phase? → [...] What is the value of DNA Content Number (c) during G2 Phase? → 4 What happens to DNA Content Number (c) during S Phase? → [...] What happens to DNA Content Number (c) during S Phase? → Doubles What happens to DNA Content Number (c) during Mitosis? → [...] What happens to DNA Content Number (c) during Mitosis? → Halved What are the n and c values when Entering Mitosis from G2? n = [...] c = [...] What are the n and c values when Entering Mitosis from G2? n = 2 c = 4 Each Homologous Chromosome Pair Entering Mitosis has 1 [...] and 1 [...] Chromosome Each Homologous Chromosome Pair Entering Mitosis has 1 Maternal and 1 Paternal Chromosome Each Chromosome Entering Mitosis has 2 [...] Each Chromosome Entering Mitosis has 2 Identical Sister Chromatids What happens during Mitosis? → [...] What happens during Mitosis? → Each Daughter Cell receives 1 Identical Chromatid from Every Chromosome What are the n and c values After Mitosis? n = [...] c = [...] What are the n and c values After Mitosis? n = 2 c = 2 End Result of Mitosis → [...] End Result of Mitosis → Genetically Identifical Daughter Cells Meiosis Purpose → [...] Meiosis Purpose → Generates Haploid Gametes Meiosis occurs only in the [...] Meiosis occurs only in the Germline What are the n and c values when Entering Meiosis I from G2? n = [...] c = [...] What are the n and c values when Entering Meiosis I from G2? n = 2 c = 4 What happens during Meiosis I? → [...] What happens during Meiosis I? → Homologous Chromosomes Associate to Form Bivalents/Tetrads Bivalent = 2 Joined Chromosomes with 4 DNA Double HelicesTetrad = 4 Sister Chromatids within a Bivalent or a Homologous Chromosome Pair What happens specifically during Prophase I of Meiosis I? [...] [...] What happens specifically during Prophase I of Meiosis I? Crossing-Over/Homologous Recombination between Homologues In Females, Meiosis Arrests for 10-50 years What are the n and c values After Meiosis I? n = [...] c = [...] What are the n and c values After Meiosis I? n = 1 c = 2 What are the n and c values when Entering Meiosis II? n = [...] c = [...] What are the n and c values when Entering Meiosis II? n = 1 c = 2 End Result of Meiosis I → [...] End Result of Meiosis I → Haploid Daughter Cells What happens during Meiosis II? → [...] What happens during Meiosis II? → Sister Chromatids are Pulled Apart into Daughter Cells End Result of Meiosis II → [...] End Result of Meiosis II → Non-Genetically Identical Haploid Gametes What are the n and c values After Meiosis II? n = [...] c = [...] What are the n and c values After Meiosis II? n = 1 c = 1 When does Spermatogenesis begin? → [...] When does Spermatogenesis begin? → Puberty When does Oogenesis begin? → [...] When does Oogenesis begin? → Early Embryonic Life How long does Spermatogenesis last? → [...] How long does Spermatogenesis last? → 60 Days How long does Oogenesis last? → [...] How long does Oogenesis last? → 10-50 Years "# of Mitoses Before Meiosis in Spermatogenesis → [...]" "# of Mitoses Before Meiosis in Spermatogenesis → 30-500" "# of Mitoses Before Meiosis in Oogenesis → [...]" "# of Mitoses Before Meiosis in Oogenesis → 20-30" "# of Gametes Produced/Meiosis in Spermatogenesis → [...]" "# of Gametes Produced/Meiosis in Spermatogenesis → 4 Spermatozoa" "# of Gametes Produced/Meiosis in Oogenesis → [...]" "# of Gametes Produced/Meiosis in Oogenesis → 1 Ovum + 3 Polar Bodies" How many Gametes Per Ejaculation in Males? → [...] How many Gametes Per Ejaculation in Males? → 100-200 Million How many Gametes Per Period in Females? → [...] How many Gametes Per Period in Females? → 1 2 Mechanisms for Genetic Diversity in Sexual Reproduction [...][...] 2 Mechanisms for Genetic Diversity in Sexual Reproduction Independent Assortment of ChromosomesCrossing-Over/Homologous Recombination [...] → Different Versions of a Gene that differ by only a small number of nucleotides Alleles → Different Versions of a Gene that differ by only a small number of nucleotides [...] → Most Common Allele for a gene within a population Wild-Type Allele → Most Common Allele for a gene within a population [...] → Less common than wild-type allele, but occurs >1% of the time Polymorphism → Less common than wild-type allele, but occurs >1% of the time [...] → Change in DNA sequence that may or may not produce changes in observed features Variant → Change in DNA sequence that may or may not produce changes in observed features [...] → Occurs at a frequency of