Interpersonal Communication: Context and Connection PDF

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: CONTEXT AND CONNECTION ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)  TitlePage Context and Connection Multiple Authors under an ASCCC OERI RFP grant is licensed CC BY unl...

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: CONTEXT AND CONNECTION ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)  TitlePage Context and Connection Multiple Authors under an ASCCC OERI RFP grant is licensed CC BY unless otherwise noted Interpersonal Communication: 1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/139082 InfoPage content to reduce the burdens of unreasonable textbook costs to This text is disseminated via the Open Education Resource our students and society. The LibreTexts project is a multi- (OER) LibreTexts Project (https://LibreTexts.org) and like the institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation hundreds of other texts available within this powerful platform, of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all it is freely available for reading, printing and levels of higher learning by developing an Open Access "consuming." Most, but not all, pages in the library Resource environment. 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In addition, the OERI supports local OER implementation efforts through the provision of 1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/138305 TABLE OF CONTENTS Program Page About the book Licensing About the Authors 1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication 1.1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication 1.2: Defining Interpersonal Communication 1.3: Communication Principles 1.4: Models of Communication 1.5: Interpersonal Communication Fulfills Our Needs 1.6: Tools of Interpersonal Communication 1.7: Ethical Communication 1.8: Summary and Review 1.9: References 2: Communication and Self 2.1: Introduction to Communication and Self 2.2: Understanding the Self—Who You Are 2.3: Forming the Self 2.4: Communicating the Self 2.5: Changing the Self 2.6: Summary and Review 2.7: References 3: Perception and Communication 3.1: Introduction to Perception and Communication 3.2: Perception Process—Parts 1 and 2 (Selection and Organization) 3.3: Perception Process - Part 3 (Interpretation) 3.4: Influences on Perception 3.5: Stereotyping, Microaggressions, and Bias 3.6: Guidelines for Effective Perception 3.7: Summary and Review 3.8: References 4: Verbal Elements of Communication 4.1: Introduction to Verbal Elements of Communication 4.2: The Nature of Language 4.3: Language Barriers 4.4: Improving Verbal Communication 4.5: Summary and Review 4.6: References 1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/139087 5: Nonverbal Elements of Communication 5.1: Introduction to Nonverbal Elements of Communication 5.2: Definitions 5.3: The Roles of Nonverbal Communication in Interpersonal Communication 5.4: The Six Functions of Nonverbal Communication 5.5: The Channels of Nonverbal Communication 5.6: Summary and Review 5.7: References 5.8: Case Study 6: Listening 6.1: Introduction to Listening 6.2: Stages of the Listening Process 6.3: Functions of Listening 6.4: Listening Styles 6.5: Barriers to Listening 6.6: Ineffective Listening Practices 6.7: Becoming a Better Listener 6.8: Summary and Review 6.9: References 7: Emotions 7.1: Introduction to Emotions 7.2: What Are Emotions? 7.3: Influences on Emotional Expression 7.4: Emotions in Relationships 7.5: Managing Emotions 7.6: Guidelines for Communicating Emotions Effectively 7.7: Coping with Challenging Emotions 7.8: Summary and Review 7.9: References 8: Communication Climate 8.1: Introduction to Communication Climate 8.2: Confirming and Disconfirming Climates 8.3: Context Can Play a Role in Identifying Confirming and Disconfirming Responses 8.4: Supportive versus Defensive Communication 8.5: Skills to Support Confirming Communication Climates 8.6: Summary and Review 8.7: References 9: Interpersonal Conflict 9.1: Introduction to Interpersonal Conflict 9.2: Interpersonal Conflict Defined 9.3: Conflict Goals and Outcomes 9.4: Conflict Management Style 9.5: Unproductive Conflict 9.6: Conflict Resolution 9.7: Summary and Review 9.8: References 2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/139087 10: Building and Maintaining Relationships 10.1: Introduction to Building and Maintaining Relationships 10.2: Foundations of Relationships 10.3: Common Relationship Types 10.4: Relationship Stages 10.5: The Role of Self-Disclosure 10.6: Couple Communication 10.7: Cycle of Abuse and Coming Apart 10.8: Summary and Review 10.9: References 11: Dark Side of Communication 11.1: Introduction to the Dark Side of Communication 11.2: Deception and Gaslighting 11.3: Jealousy, Secret Tests, and Gossip 11.4: Communication as a Weapon—Aggression in Relationships 11.5: The Dark Side of Social Media 11.6: Summary and Review 11.7: References 12: Interpersonal Communication in the Workplace 12.1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication in the Workplace 12.2: Interpersonal Communication and the Workplace 12.3: Types of Workplace Relationships 12.4: A Guide to Communicating Professionally in Workplace Relationships 12.5: Boundaries at Work 12.6: Summary and Review 12.7: References Index Glossary Glossary Detailed Licensing 3 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/139087 About the book or seamlessly integrated into course management systems Interpersonal Communication: Context and Connection such as Canvas. provides an engaging overview of interpersonal communication Universal Design: The design of the book adheres to the grounded in theory, research, and practical application, with an best practices of accessibility in universal design as eye to the lived experience of college students. The first three recommended by the Academic Senate of the California chapters provide the foundation of interpersonal communication Community Colleges. with an examination of the theoretical and conceptual Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion: The writing of the book background of communication, self, and perception. The next was guided by the principles of equity, diversity, and section of the book examines unique features of messaging, with inclusion, using voice, language, and examples to speak an exploration of listening, verbal, and nonverbal directly to students. communication. Chapters seven, eight, and nine explore Authors: The authors of this text include a collective of 15 dynamic factors that shape interpersonal relationships, including diverse instructors from across California, from San Diego emotions, climate, and conflict. The final chapters of the book all the way up to Humboldt County. delve into communication in context through building and Chapter Enhancements include: maintaining relationships, the dark side of communication, and workplace relationships. Each chapter begins with learning objectives that are based on C-ID standards and ends with a summary to Throughout the writing of this textbook, we kept our target link student learning back to the objectives. audience in mind: first and second-year students at community Break-out boxes throughout the chapters include a focus colleges and universities. Using descriptions, examples, images, on gender, culture, technology, and media in combination and activities that would connect with our students, we focused with activities and questions for student reflection. on fundamental concepts, theories, and models that addressed Original images and activities developed by authors. the student learning outcomes for achieving knowledge and Each chapter includes a rich database of key concepts, skills in interpersonal communication. This academic resource vocabulary terms, and questions for discussion. is available free of charge because we support the accessibility of educational materials for everyone. We encourage instructors Pandemic, Virtual Environments, and Communication: to consider adopting this open educational resource as a Every attempt was made to acknowledge how virtual comprehensive textbook for a course on interpersonal environments and the pandemic have shaped interpersonal communication. We also suggest that instructors consider communication. customizing their use of the text by incorporating chapters or This project was a labor of LOVE on the part of the sections of the resource into other courses as appropriate. communication faculty who participated in the writing of this Interpersonal Communication: Context and Connection was textbook. We came together as strangers and leave this project written with several unique features in mind that make it an as friends. Influenced by popular OER writings in the discipline excellent resource for community college students. of interpersonal communication, the majority of this book is written in our own voices inspired by our teaching and personal, Interpersonal Communication C-ID: The book was lived experiences. The acronym below spells out our labor of written with the rigor and expectations tailored to C-ID for LOVE. COMM 130, Interpersonal Communication. The C-ID L: Life-long learning Based on our love for and, for many number is a designation that ties that course to a specific of us, life-long learning and teaching in the field of course “descriptor” that was developed by intersegmental communication studies, we wanted to share the significant discipline faculty and reviewed statewide. concepts, theories, and models of interpersonal Theoretical Framework: The book incorporates communication through engaging examples and narratives, frameworks of traditional interpersonal communication clear definitions and discussions, and relevant reflective theories with contemporary examples to promote student activities with learners of all ages, backgrounds, and success. experiences. CC-BY License: The book has a Creative Commons license O: Open education Because we advocate for and support CC BY which is by far one of the most open licenses in the open education for all, we created an open educational OER spectrum and allows users to retain, reuse, revise, resource that would be accessible to all students as a free remix, and redistribute. text. We also composed this text in such a way that Libre-Texts Platform: With Libre-Texts as the platform for instructors can select as much of the resource as they chose the book, materials can be adapted for face-to-face courses, 1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/138308  to use and adapt it as they see fit in order to best suit their have been possible without the support of a joint grant from the students and the student learning objectives. Academic Senate of the California Community Colleges Open V: Virtual learning Being committed to providing the best Educational Resources Initiative (ASCCC-OERI) and Libre- possible learning experiences for our students in their online, Texts. This project received financial support for this project virtual learning environments, we ourselves worked on this and equally important extensive training in open education collaborative project conducting our research, writing our resources, licensing, accessibility, and Libre-Texts. We like to chapters, and revising our text as we learned how to use new thank the OER authors who came before us, as well as technologies to provide our students with the most relevant, organizations such as the Gottman Institute, for graciously up-to-date information on interpersonal communication sharing their valuable resources with this project. We would also accessible online. like to thank Shagun Kaur - our Project Facilitator, and Hilary E: Equity Being mindful of the unfairness and injustice Altman, and Kim Yee-Jung - our two leads of this project. Their brought about by the pandemic and other societal issues, we vision, patience, and amazing organizational skills help to answered the call to craft a text that was grounded in equity facilitate this project through to its completion. Collectively, the and supported student success in achieving a fundamental authors would like to thank their families and loved ones for understanding of the theory and practices in effective providing support and feedback throughout this process. Last, interpersonal communication. but not least, the authors would like to thank the wonderful The authors of this book would like to offer a heartfelt thank students of the California Community College system, who you to the supporters of this project. This project would not collectively served as inspiration for this text. 2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/138308 Licensing A detailed breakdown of this resource's licensing can be found in Back Matter/Detailed Licensing. 1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/166598 About the Authors About the Authors Author Images Author Bios Hilary is Chair of Communication and Co-Chair of the Art, Music, and Communication Department, as well as a Communication instructor for the amazing students of Merritt College in Oakland, California. With a B.S. and Master’s degrees from Cornell University, and a Ph.D. from Northwestern, she has also worked in radio, and nonprofits, and is also a licensed therapist. Hilary is a disability advocate and enjoys hiking, rescuing dogs, and watching basketball and football, preferably with Hilary Altman, Ph.D., LMFT family and friends. Kristine is a professor of Communication Studies at Golden West College. She began her interest in the field as a competitor on the speech and debate team and CSU Long Beach where she received her B.A. and M.A. before going on to get her Ph.D. at Purdue University. When she is not teaching and working she enjoys spending time playing games with her family and baking. Kristine Clancy, Ph.D. Liz is a professor of Communication Studies at American River College and has been teaching for 15 years. She is a proud community college graduate and earned her B.A. in Communication Studies from U.C. Davis. She went on to earn an M.A. in Instructional and Organizational Communication from CSU, Sacramento. Liz serves on the Student Learning Outcomes Committee and is the faculty advisor for the Phi Theta Kappa Honor Society. When she is not in the classroom, you will find her running her consulting business, nurturing her creative side, spending time with her two boys, hiking, meditating, traveling, and Elizabeth (Liz) Coleman, M.A. enjoying a cup of coffee in the backyard. Liz Encarnacion (she/they) is an assistant professor of communication studies at Chaffey College. After transferring from Grossmont College in San Diego to Cal Poly Pomona, Liz went on to receive her master's in Liz Encarnacion, M.A. Human Communication studies from Cal State Fullerton. Liz is actively engaged in diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts across Chaffey Campus and the state of California, working with students and faculty- driven by the same missions. Angela is a professor of Communication Studies at Cerritos College, where she has also served as department chair, Guided Pathways faculty coordinator, and on numerous campus committees. Her research interests center on interpersonal conflict management and developing communicative competence. Her joys in life are spending time with her family, traveling, hiking, and teaching. Angela Hoppe-Nagao, EdD, M.A. Anu has been a professor at De Anza College since 2000 in both the Intercultural Studies and Communication Studies departments. Most recently she has been serving as Department Chair of Communication Studies and Co-Coordinator of the Learning in Communities program. Anu was born in Wisconsin (yes, she is a Packers fan) and raised mostly in Illinois. She has a B.A. from the University of Illinois and an M.A. from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. She earned her Ph.D. in Intercultural and Organizational Communication from Arizona State University. Prior to working at De Anza, Anu worked in the Maricopa Anu Khanna, Ph.D. Community College District developing leadership training for academic leaders. Outside of work, Anu enjoys traveling with her husband and two teenagers, cooking, reading, and crafting. 1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/142855  Karyl has been researching and teaching for 30 years in the field of Communication and Cultural Studies. Her research focuses on the analysis of public communication that enables social, political, and cultural ideologies to produce power and privilege. She is also interested in critical pedagogy and teaching practices that enhance student learning. When not at work, she enjoys eating pastries and Karyl Kicenski Ph.D. visiting tropical locales. Victoria Leonard has been teaching since 1981 and began her career at California State University, Northridge. After 14 years she began full- time at College of the Canyons. Over her career, Professor Leonard has served as department chair, on numerous campus committees, and has served students as adviser to the COMS Club and Sigma Chi Eta Honor Society. Her primary goals as a professor have been to help students connect theories to their lives. When not working, she can be found in Victoria Leonard. M.A. the U.K. visiting her son and his family, spending time with her daughter who is also a COMS professor, or repurposing and chalk painting furniture. Alex Mata is a Professor of Communication Studies at San Diego, Miramar College. She also serves as the Humanities Department Chair and Mentoring Coordinator for her campus. Alex finds new ways to explore her passion for understanding Communication Studies as a mom, wife, friend, daughter, advocate, community member, and countless other interactions with those around her. When she is not working, Alex enjoys being outside, traveling to new and exciting locations to learn about all of the beauty this world has to offer. Alex Mata, M.A. Rebeca is a Community College and California State University system professor. She was born and raised in San Francisco CA, and the first Latina in her family to graduate from college. She feels that her multicultural upbringing influenced her to want to become an effective communicator. She worked as an International Flight Attendant for United Airlines while studying for her master's. Rebeca earned a B.A. in International Relations and M.A. in Communication. Rebeca Moran, M.A. Brielle is currently an online faculty member throughout the California Community College system and State University system. She graduated from UC Davis with a Bachelor's degree and San Diego State University with a Masters degree, both in Communication Studies. Throughout her training, she was drawn to material that intersects technology, health, culture, and relationships. Today she continues to bridge these topics in her courses, and her additional work as an Instructional Designer at UC Santa Cruz, focusing on education technology and equity. When she is not virtually working on campus Brielle Plump, M.A. she is in the yoga studio where is also a teacher and teacher trainer. Armeda Reitzel is Professor Emerita at Cal Poly Humboldt where she has been teaching Communication for over 40 years. She earned a B.A. in German and English, M.A. in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, and Ph.D. in Speech Communication. Dr. Reitzel was a Fulbright Scholar in Nicaragua in 2010. She has been to every continent except one (Antarctica) and hopes to go to that seventh continent Armeda C. Reitzel, Ph.D someday! 2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/142855  Tiffany has been teaching Communication Studies classes since 2012. Professor Ruggeri is an alumnus of California State University, Fullerton, and currently teaches the essentials of argumentation, public speaking, group communication, and interpersonal communication. Professor Ruggeri believes in student-centered learning, and that coursework should be designed so that what is learned in the classroom will aid in student success in all facets of life, in real-time. Tiffany Ruggeri-DiLello, M.A. Eric has taught in the Communication Studies Department at San Francisco State University since 2013 where he teaches courses in public speaking, small group and team communication, and interpersonal communication. Eric was born in Flint, Michigan and he received his BA from Wayne State University in Detroit and then went on to earn his MA from San Francisco State University. Aside from academia, Eric is a talent acquisition and DEI leader who strategically and creatively grows and scales teams to help companies achieve their business goals. Outside of work, Eric loves to travel, experiment in the Eric Weidner, M.A kitchen with new dessert recipes, and hike throughout the San Francisco Bay Area. Kim has been teaching in public education for the last 30 years. She spent most of her teaching career in elementary education. Since retiring from teaching children, she has returned to what drew her to education - teaching Communication Studies. Currently teaching very part-time and asynchronously as an adjunct instructor for Cerritos College, Kim is enjoying her retired life! Kimberlie Yee, M.A. 3 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/142855  CHAPTER OVERVIEW 1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication  Learning Objectives Define and identify the main functions of interpersonal communication. Discuss human needs and how interpersonal communication fulfills those needs. Examine the principles of communication. Explain the different parts of the model of communication. 1.1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication 1.2: Defining Interpersonal Communication 1.3: Communication Principles 1.4: Models of Communication 1.5: Interpersonal Communication Fulfills Our Needs 1.6: Tools of Interpersonal Communication 1.7: Ethical Communication 1.8: Summary and Review 1.9: References This page titled 1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Multiple Authors (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform. 1 1.1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication Being an Effective Communicator As you open this book to read Chapter 1, stop and think about how many times you have communicated today. Did you take some time to scroll through your social media feeds? Did you chat with a friend, maybe send them a text? Did you order a coffee or some lunch at a local spot? Did you answer a question for a customer or client at work? Did you send your instructor an email? Maybe you are listening to music right now? All of these were communicative experiences, and we have thousands of them each day. Communication is fundamental to our lives but much of the time it remains unconscious and unexamined. We communicate because we must. But just because we communicate doesn’t mean we do it effectively. Being an effective communicator requires not only practice, but knowledge. This text is designed to help you gain this knowledge and become more effective communicators, specifically in interpersonal encounters. In this first chapter we will define interpersonal communication, examine why communication is fundamental to our existence, lay out the various models of communication, explore fundamental communication principles, and finally talk about what constitutes ethical communication. Figure 1.1.1 : Studying, Sean Benesh, Unsplash This page titled 1.1: Introduction to Interpersonal Communication is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Multiple Authors (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform. 1.1.1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136525 1.2: Defining Interpersonal Communication Defining Communication As we begin our exploration of interpersonal communication together, we need to start with a basic understanding of what we mean when we say "communication." The examples provided in our introduction demonstrate that when we communicate, we understand that it is happening but, if we step back and try to define what is happening in each of those interactions it can be more difficult. Take a minute and define communication in a sentence or two. It is more difficult than it seems! Communication, as defined by theorists and researchers in the field, is the sending and receiving of messages. While that definition may seem simple, it is highly complex and involves the process of both senders and receivers. When we communicate, we are trying to get the thoughts in our heads out into the world in a way that will allow others to understand them. To do so we must use symbols to represent our thoughts, and then share them to generate meaning. In other words, communication is sharing symbols to generate meaning. Words as Symbols To better understand this definition and what it helps us understand about the communication process, we need to examine the distinct parts. First, what are symbols? Symbols are objects or images that denote or are understood to have a specific meaning. We use symbols to express thoughts and ideas in physical form. Words are symbols. We create and reinforce their meaning. Symbols are used to express our thoughts, the perceptions of things we have seen before, and the images of what those symbols mean in our mind. For example, when you text your friend, “hey, you want to grab a bite?” you are using words to convey the thought that you are hungry and want to get food together. Those words are the symbols. If you text your friend a picture of a burger, then you are using the burger emoji as the symbol for those same thoughts. Figure 1.2.1 : Twemoji, Twitter, CC BY 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons Most symbols can mean different things at once and can mean different things to different people depending on a number of controllable and uncontrollable factors, like context, subtext, and the past experiences of those communicating. For example, if your friend is not familiar with the phrasing “want to grab a bite?” to reference getting food together, they may not visualize and have reference for the same symbolic meaning of that phrase as you do. Another example could be using the word "significant other," which can conjure up various semantic and symbolic people and relationships for each individual, yet has a standard "literal" or dictionary definition in the English language. In both cases, you are hoping that your friend will interpret these symbols in the same way that you do, so that the meaning generated using those symbols is shared. If that happens, then we have successfully communicated. If your friend doesn’t think the word “bite” means getting something to eat or doesn’t know why you sent them a picture of a hamburger, then you lack shared meaning, and you have miscommunication. As you can see, the definition of communication may be relatively simple, but communication is not. English borrows from other languages, making it a rich collection of symbols that has sustained itself as the predominant language of trade and information worldwide. Multilingual speakers know that there are certain words that do not translate or have a misunderstood translation in English. For example, "Mamihlapinatapai" (Yaghan language of Tierra del Fuego): this word captures that special look shared between two people when both are wishing that the other would do something that they both want, but neither want to do. The term "zhaghzhagh" (Persian) translates as the chattering of teeth from the cold or from rage. Interpersonal Communication Defined There are many kinds of communication, but this textbook is focused on interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is defined as “communication that takes place between people who are interdependent and have some knowledge of each other” (Wikimedia Foundation, 2022). Interpersonal communication includes how we send and receive messages from 1.2.1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136526 others, given our internal perceptions, emotions, and unique contexts. Although we might not have realized the vast and different ways we use communication in our everyday lives, it is important to understand these different categories. In “Types of Communication,” we can see there are crossovers between intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, intercultural communication, group communication, and public speaking, but there are also distinct differences within the different interactions as well.  Types of Communication While the focus of this text is on interpersonal communication there are several other types of communication that humans engage. Understanding the various ways we communicate helps us better understand the unique differences between communication types and styles. Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication is communication with one’s self. When we engage in “self-talk,” imagine, or remember we are engaging in intrapersonal communication. (McLean, 2005). In order to be considered intrapersonal communication all of the basic components of the communication model occur within the individual (Shedletsky, 2017). We engage in a wide variety of intrapersonal communication from evaluating ourselves and others to resolving internal conflicts to planning and problem solving. While this communication may take place in our minds without being shared externally, it is still communication. Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal communication is communication between two people and it is the focus of this book. Some scholars refer to interpersonal communication as dyadic because it takes place in a pair, or dyad. We engage in all kinds of interpersonal communication every day. Just think back to the start of this chapter when we explored how much communication you have already done today: much of that communication was dyadic between parent and child, coworkers, customer and employee, teacher and student, etc. Intercultural Communication Intercultural communication is communication between people with differing cultural identities. One reason we should study intercultural communication is to foster greater self-awareness (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Intercultural communication can allow us to step outside of our comfortable, usual frame of reference and see our culture through a different lens. In our modern world we have increasing opportunities to engage with people from a variety of cultural backgrounds so it is important that we understand how culture influences our communication. Group Communication Group communication is communication between three or more people, usually in a formal setting where this group membership is assigned or voluntary— such as a team of work colleagues tasked with presenting the company’s growth data at a board meeting, or a church community setting up a fundraiser. While there is some discrepancy over the range, most scholars agree that when a group reaches 15 to 20 members, it is no longer a small group and we begin to move into the next category, public communication. There is significant overlap between interpersonal and small-group communication, because in small groups you have an interpersonal relationship with the other members of the group (Linabary). There are many types of small groups, but the most common distinction made between types of small groups is that of task-oriented and relational-oriented groups (Hargie, 2011). You are probably in a few different groups: for example, your family network functions as a small group, or maybe you are in a study group for one of your classes, or a social group that meets around a shared interest. Public Communication Public communication occurs when an individual or a group presents to an audience. When a group is too large to sustain interpersonal or small-group interactions, we generally consider it to be public communication, because the larger the number of people increases the range in which the sender is less likely to receive direct communication back in return. Many of you may be familiar with public speaking, which is one of the most common forms of audience-centered communication in our Western perspective. If you have ever given a presentation in class or at your workplace you have engaged in this manner of public communication (Wrench, et al., 2020). There are many ways in which different cultures and communities view public communication differently and engage in discourse among large groups through discourse, including judicial review (council meetings, oaths, ministries, etc), spoken word (poetry, theater, storytelling, music, etc.), and epideictic rhetoric (prayers, performance, chants, etc). There are many 1.2.2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136526  ways in which we engage in public communication. While some might bring about more fear than others, many of us engage in public communication more frequently than we think. Discussion Questions 1. Which form of communication do you use the most in your everyday life? How do you think this form of communication impacts your everyday experiences? 2. Think about the different identities you hold (student, friend, caregiver, etc.). How does your communication differ in these roles? 3. Interpersonal communication can encompass elements of other forms of communication. What examples do you have that showcase this overlap? A great deal of our communication is interpersonal communication. Friendships, romantic relationships, families, relationships at work, etc., are all areas where we engage in interpersonal communication. In fact, interpersonal communication is how we develop, maintain, and end relationships. These relationships are the cornerstones of much of our communication interactions, as well as the relationships we invest the most time, energy, and personal resources into. Because of the prominence and impact that interpersonal relationships hold for many of us, this has become an area of interest and curiosity for many researchers within the discipline of communication studies as well as other social sciences. There are many ways in which theories and research within the communication discipline impact and help support theories and research within other disciplines; therefore learning about and continuing to investigate the intricacies of interpersonal communication not only benefits research, but it also benefits our personal lives as well. This page titled 1.2: Defining Interpersonal Communication is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Multiple Authors (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform. 1.2.3 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136526 1.3: Communication Principles The Nature of Communication As we develop our understanding of not only communication as a whole, but more specifically interpersonal communication, there are some basic principles of communication that will lay the groundwork for our exploration in the chapters ahead. In this section we will discuss how communication is learned and then we will focus on the continuous, unrepeatable, irreversible nature of communication. Communication Is Learned While we are born with the capacity to communicate, communication is not innate to humans, rather it is learned. We have already talked about how communication is symbolic and dependent on the culture and context in which it takes place. How we make meaning from the symbols that we use is learned both formally and informally. When babies move from being vocal to verbal they begin the process of connecting symbols to items and ideas. This happens both formally when parents and caregivers teach children specific words and phrases, and informally as they observe what is happening around them and incorporate that knowledge. For example, one of the first things we taught our son when he was learning to use some simple words was the difference between “all done” and “more” so that he could express his desire when playing, eating, etc. There is nothing inherent about the letters m-o-r-e that means "I would like to continue." Instead, this shared understanding of the word is learned when we are given additional helpings of food or allowed to extend our play time. In addition to formal teaching, communication is also learned informally through observation and engagement with the world around us. Once a child is in school they are learning communication not just in the classroom but from their peers. This communication is no less valid than what they learn from their teachers. Both illustrate the fundamental principle that communication is learned. Communication Is Continuous In addition to being learned, communication is also continuous. We are always communicating. In fact, we cannot not communicate. While much of our communication is intentional, a lot of communication is unintentional. Whether or not communication has occurred is not always up to the person doing the communicating. When a student is sitting in our classroom and they yawn, they are probably not sending us a specific message. But if we see the yawn and start to think that they are bored and uninterested in what we am talking about, communication has occurred. In fact, our very existence communicates. What we wear, how we style our hair, our posture, where we are in the environment—all of these things are communicating to those around us. This shows us how communication is always happening, whether we intend to or not. Communication is continuous. Figure 1.3.1 : Yawn, Miikka Luotio, Unsplash Communication Is Unrepeatable Communication is also unrepeatable. When we say that communication is unrepeatable, what we mean is that we can never reproduce the same exact communication twice. Even if we deliver the same message, other aspects—such as our tone, the environment we are in, or the context in which we are speaking—will be different, so the communication will be different. Heraclitus, an ancient Greek philosopher, said that no man ever steps in the same river twice, for it's not the same river and he's not 1.3.1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/137750 the same man. Communication is the same way, because we are always communicating—and the context, our emotional state, even internal factors like hunger or fatigue are contending with our words. These various aspects of communication are constantly flowing like the river, so even if we wanted to repeat a communication event we could not, just like we could not step in the same river twice. There will always be variation in our communication. Communication Is Irreversible Finally, in addition to being continuous and unrepeatable, communication is also irreversible. If you have ever watched Law and Order or another similar show you may have heard a judge say, “the jury will disregard.” In non-lawyer terms what the judge is doing is telling the jury to forget about the evidence they just heard because it is inadmissible. we don’t know about you, but this has always struck me as odd. Obviously the jury doesn’t just forget what they heard. Now that they know it, there is no way for them to "unknow" it. Once we communicate, we cannot undo it; what was communicated is permanently out in the world. This principle is particularly important when it comes to self-disclosure, or the sharing of personal or private information with another person that includes expression of your observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs in relationships. Once you share information about yourself you cannot take it back. If you tell a friend that you have romantic feelings for them and they don’t reciprocate those feelings, you can’t just go back to the way things were before you share that information. The communication is permanent, and in this case it has altered your relationship in an irreversible way. This permanence has taken on even more importance with the growth of communication technology. When we send a text, direct message (DM), or email, not only is the communication irreversible in the sense that we can’t take it back, but it is also literally permanent because there are saved copies of it. That communication can be shared over and over again beyond our initial communication; even if we delete the original, it is never completely gone. This isn’t meant to scare you, but to help you understand the impact that language can have. To fully understand interpersonal communication and its impact on our lives, we will start by discussing communication models. This page titled 1.3: Communication Principles is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Multiple Authors (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform. 1.3.2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/137750 1.4: Models of Communication Linear Model There are many models of communication, and there are many components within these models that will be discussed in detail throughout this chapter. One of the earliest models of communication in the Western world was the linear model of communication, which shows that a communication event took place. It contains one sender of the message and the message itself being sent to one receiver, as shown in Figure 1.4.1. The message is encoded (created) by the sender and sent out via the channel, then received by the receiver. This model does not include the concept of feedback as an integral component. One of the criticisms of the linear model is that it lacks the component feedback and the idea that meaning is created amongst communicators. Figure 1.4.1 : Linear Model of Communication on Public Speaking Project is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 Interactional Model Over time the linear model has evolved into the interactional model of communication. This newer model takes into account that for there to be a sender of communication, there needs to be a receiver who takes an active role in the communication event. The interactional model of communication, as shown in Figure 1.4.2, has both the sender and receiver actively using feedback so that communication is no longer seen as simply linear. However, this model lacks the co-creation of meaning that takes place in true communication interactions. Figure 1.4.2 : Interactional Model of Communication on Survey of Human Communication is licensed under CC BY 3.0 When a pilot is getting ready to take off, they must listen to Air Traffic Control (ATC) on their radio to hear what is happening on the runway. When they are ready to take off, they will press a button inside the cockpit to send a request to ATC for clearance. When they are done, they have to release the button so they can hear the response from ATC. If they continue to hold down the button, they won’t be able to receive a message and ATC won’t be able to hear any other messages. The communication between 1.4.1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528 pilots and ATC is linear; it can only go one way. You can either send or receive a message; you cannot do both. For a long time this is how we thought about human communication. There is a sender (the pilot), who encodes a message (“request takeoff”) and sends it via a channel (radio) to the receiver (ATC), who then decodes the message. While this might be an accurate way to describe a two-way radio conversation, it is not an accurate reflection of human communication in general. When the pilot is sending a message to ATC, the pilot is also receiving messages simultaneously from a co-pilot or other crew. Likewise, the ATC contact is managing a number of different aircraft as well as coworkers in the tower. Communication is not linear. We are simultaneously sending and receiving, encoding and decoding, and managing several channels across contexts, all while we try to block out noise. Today, we have moved past this linear model of communication to embrace a transactional model. Transactional Model The current transactional model of communication was created to showcase the entirety of what humans experience when we communicate with one another, as shown in Figure 1.4.3. Figure 1.4.3 : Transactional Model of Communication by Elizabeth Encarnacion is licensed under CC BY 4.0. The transactional model better acknowledges the complex nature of communication. Let’s take some time to break down the individual parts. First, rather than identifying the individual parties as sender and receiver, the transactional model simply refers to the parties involved as communicators. Communicators The communicators are simultaneously encoding and decoding throughout the exchange. Encoding occurs when an individual constructs a message using symbols; decoding happens when someone attempts to interpret the message. We create messages in our heads and then decide how to share those messages with others. Simultaneously, we are taking in messages from our communication partners, and trying to derive meaning from their feedback. The concepts of noise and feedback must taken into account as this occurs. The transactional model shows how meaning is co-created and feedback is at the core of shared meaning as all communicators are acting as senders and receivers in a synchronized manner. Take for instance a scenario where you have come home from work and your roommate is home. You are tired but the monthly bills will be late if they are not paid. You make eye contact with your roommate and verbally ask your roommate if they have a minute. You have already begun the transaction of communication. In this scenario you are both communicators. You use verbal and nonverbal means of communicating. You knew it was imperative to discuss the bills and your mind started to create or encode messages. While you made eye contact and verbalized a message, your roommate was actively communicating with you. Did they make eye contact? What did this say to you? We are actively decoding and encoding simultaneously. Decoding in this scenario may be lack of eye contact or focused eye contact. We are attempting to make meaning from messages we receive while creating messages or responses. The feedback we give can be verbal and nonverbal. Perhaps your roommate had a tone that you interpret as irritated, which then changes how you respond. This message negotiation helps us co-create meaning. Understanding how each role in the model affects communication can help us to understand our communication and how to become behaviorally flexible and thereby competent communicators. 1.4.2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528 Message The message is the meaning or content that one communicator is attempting to get the other to understand. The message can be verbal or nonverbal. A Verbal message is one that uses language. When a customer walks into a coffee shop and the barista says “good morning,” they are using language to express their message. Verbal messages can be spoken or written. If the message is nonverbal then there is an absence of language. When the customer walks into the coffee shop and the barista waves their hand, they have conveyed a similar message nonverbally because no language was used. Often the message contains both: for example, if they wave and say “good morning,” the message is both verbal and nonverbal. Channel In order for a communicator to send a message they must use a channel. The channel is how a message moves from one communicator to another, through different mediums of communication that extend the richness or leanness of the message. In the previous example the channel is face-to-face. This channel is the richest because it allows for all kinds of messages. We can hear, see, smell, touch, etc. so we can send all kinds of different messages. Every other channel limits the kinds of messages that we can send. For example, you could place a coffee order online through an app on your phone. In this case, you won’t talk to the barista or see them wave or smile, but they will still get your specific order. Technology has vastly expanded the number of different channels that we have to communicate with one another. For instance, after you pick up your coffee you can snap a picture and post it on Instagram or text a friend to show them how your name was misspelled. Each of these channels influences the kinds of messages and the potential communicators. The relationship between these different components of communication will be something we return to as we learn more about interpersonal communication. Feedback Feedback is a large part of how we co-create understanding by negotiating meaning, clarifying messages, and adding to our messages. We do this verbally and nonverbally. This occurs in face-to-face communication and in computer-mediated communication, or communication via electronic means. That may sound odd at first, but let's say that you sent an important text message to your roommate about getting their share of the rent transferred today to avoid the rent being late. Your normally responsive roommate does not respond for hours. How might you interpret this feedback? In Chapter 5, you will learn about the nonverbal elements of communication, and more in-depth examples will show how feedback plays a crucial role in interpersonal communication. Context Communication requires communicators, at least one message, and a channel—but to limit the complexities of communication to just these three aspects would not give us a complete understanding of what communication truly is. Communication does not take place in a vacuum. Every time we communicate, we do so within larger contexts while also managing noise. We cannot separate the message and the channel from the larger contexts that the communicators are in. Each communication encounter is situated in a relational, environmental, and cultural context that impacts not only the individual people, but the communication itself. Relational Context When we communicate, there is a relational component involved that affects various aspects of the interaction, such as the message we send, the way we send it, and how the other person receives and interprets the message. The relational context is the relationship between the communicators that influences the other aspects of communication. While not all communication may seem to have a relational component involved, even a lack of relationship is part of the relational context and impacts the way we will communicate. Relational contexts impact our communication in various ways. For example, If you miss a day of class, you might reach out to a classmate via text: “Hey, did I miss anything?” That same communication with your instructor would be very different because of the relationship between a student and professor. When you reach out to your professor, you might do so face-to-face or via email, and you might start by referring to them by name rather than “hey.” Because of the contextual nature of these relationships, peer-to- peer versus student-to-professor, we tend to treat the message differently because of the social norms and rules we have been taught growing up. For instance, we may show a small amount of respect to the instructor, including more detailed descriptions of why we missed class, and ask permission to turn in work late — as compared to texting our peers, where we might not feel the same level of responsibility to give that much detail. While the relationship influences communication, the relational context will also be different for each communicator. Again, this will influence not only the content of the message, but also how the message is delivered. For example, one of the authors, as a 1.4.3 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528 teenager often used curse words at home when talking to their mother, because it was seen as acceptable in their relationship and within their family. However, a lot of their peers were shocked when they found this out. They would never dare use curse words with their parents. While the relational communication with the author's mother was different than other peers had with their parental relationships, it doesn’t mean one version of the communication was “wrong” and one was “right.” They were different given the different and varying relational contexts involved. While there are some generalities regarding what may be socially acceptable for certain relationships and relational context, our individual relationships are unique and therefore so is the communication they have. Environmental Context Where we communicate also influences our communication. The environmental context includes the setting, the circumstance, the situation, etc. that influence communication. Since this context can include a variety of situational factors, it has an impact upon the complex nature in which our communication takes place. The environmental context affects the communication interaction by helping or hindering the communicators effectiveness in creating and responding to the messages. If you wanted to have a serious conversation with a friend or significant other, it wouldn’t make sense to invite them out to a loud restaurant with live music. That kind of conversation would be better suited in a quiet and more intimate setting. This way the two of you could discuss the serious matter in private, where you wouldn’t have to worry about people overhearing, and you could be more forthcoming. You could hear each other well and make sure you are paying attention, invested in the conversation, and not distracted by what's around you. The circumstance of the communication encounter also dictates the appropriate nonverbal communication that is used. Take, for example, the appropriate attire one might wear to a funeral. In Western cultures like in the United States, family and friends in mourning will typically wear dark colors such as black, whereas, in East Asian cultures such as in Cambodia, white is the appropriate color worn to celebrate the reincarnation and circle of life of the person who has passed. Wearing white to a Western funeral or wearing black to an East Asian funeral would not be expected given the cultural norms of this type of event. The attire we wear and our appearance work as tools within our nonverbal communication to create meaning. Cultural Context Throughout the various relational contexts we may find ourselves in, and the various environments those relationships are happening in, the cultural context is always influencing our communication as well. Culture is defined as a group of people who share values, beliefs, norms, and a common language. Due to this shared way of thinking and behaving, people from the same culture often share similar perspectives on the world. Cultural context includes these learned perceptions of the world. What we find effective and/or appropriate in a given situation is greatly influenced by and influenced from our culture and cultural identity. Some of the most basic understandings of culture and cultural context can be found in research conducted by Professor Geert Hofstede on cultural dimensions, which showcase six ways in which a culture’s values, needs, and social behaviors are analyzed (Cho et. al, 2019). The six value dimensions that Hofstede established from their research are Collectivism versus Individualism, Nurturing versus Achievement, Power Distance (high or low), Uncertainty Avoidance (high or low), Time Orientation (long-term versus short-term), and Indulgence versus Restraint. The six value dimensions are explained in more detail in the sidebar titled “Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions.” Hofstede proposed that to understand how a particular culture utilizes communication, it is important to understand where its social behaviors lie on these dimensions. With regard to our understanding of interpersonal communication, these cultural dimensions are important building blocks in understanding the cultural context we may face when interacting within our relationships. Cultural dimensions can be important in romantic relationships, where couples from two different cultures may have to learn each other's cultural norms in order to understand the ways their partner’s family dynamics function as compared to their own. They can be also found in friendships, where each friend must respect and accept certain boundaries in the relationship because of their cultural differences, and in family relationships, where elder family members expect a certain level of respect and honor from younger generations. In order to promote understanding of our interpersonal relationships, fundamental understanding of our cultural differences is key. Through dissecting the interpersonal scenarios that happen in our everyday life, we will explore the intersection between the relational context, environmental context, and most importantly, the cultural context to showcase the complex ways in which we communicate with others. While becoming a competent communicator includes a high amount of awareness, understanding, knowledge, and skill, it can help us build confidence and help to strengthen our relationships. 1.4.4 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528  Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions The cultural dimensions are an excellent tool in beginning to analyze the different identity and cultural perspectives through a communicative lens. They allow us a small glimpse into the unique characteristics that make up the values, traditions, rituals, and practices of various cultures around the world. But just like each person is unique, so too is our understanding of cultural identity. It is difficult to place absolutes on human behavior, and therefore impossible to put absolutes on how someone’s cultural identity will be displayed. While Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are a beginning step in understanding interpersonal communication through a cultural lens, there are many more exciting steps to take along our learning journey. Collectivism versus Individualism The level of individual or group needs practiced within a culture. Collectivistic cultures are guided by collaborative support, interdependence, tight-knit large family structures, and a “we” identity. Individualistic cultures are guided by independence, autonomy, individuality, and the prioritization of immediate family structures over extended family structures. Nurturing versus Achievement The level of cooperation or competition practiced within a culture. Nurturing-based cultures are guided by concern for people and their well-being, emphasizing relationships and support. Achievement-based cultures are guided by markers of success such as material gain or status, and emphasize personal responsibility and stereotypical gender roles. Power Distance (High or Low) The level of, or distribution of, resources within a culture and the acceptance of those patterns of distribution from members of the culture. A high-power- distance culture emphasizes and accepts differences in status, title, hierarchy and authority. Cultures with low power distance have more equal divisions of power and do not put significance in titles, status, hierarchies, or authority. Uncertainty Avoidance (High or Low) The level to which a culture expects and accepts predictability, rules, regulations, and guidelines. A culture with high uncertainty avoidance will emphasize the need for rules and regulations. These cultures will find confidence in following guidelines and erring on the side of caution. A culture with low uncertainty avoidance will be more comfortable with variability, vagueness in rules or guidelines, riskiness, and adventure. Time Orientation (Long-Term versus Short-Term) The positionality of a culture’s understanding of time being future-oriented or present-oriented. A culture with long-term orientation will be focused on instilling value in generational wisdom of elders, long-term relationships, and persistence as important to goal achievement. A culture with short-term time orientation focuses on short-term goals, having high respect for past traditions, and creating quick and efficient results. Indulgence versus Restraint The level to which a culture embodies the goals and virtues of personal happiness. A culture that is indulgent will be focused on individual satisfaction through leisure and personal freedom. A culture that values restraint emphasizes self-control and strict social norms, and individual freedoms like leisure are not valued as much as hard work and dedication. Discussion Questions 1. Can you identify where you think you might fall within any of these cultural dimensions? Name the dimension and explain why. 2. Do you think having multiple cultural identities (for example, identifying as a Mexican American) will impact where you are in any one of these dimensions? Explain. 3. Have you had an instance where you can now see how a cultural dimension might have impacted your communication with someone in your life? Share your experience and the outcome of that interaction. Noise 1.4.5 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528  Figure 1.4.4 : Loud by Elyas Pasban, Unsplash Noise is the last part of the communication model. Noise is interesting because we do not need noise to communicate, but we cannot communicate without it. Noise is always present. Noise refers to anything that interrupts the communication process and prevents the message getting from one communicator to the other. Physical Noise Physical noise is anything in our environment that is loud enough to prevent one communicator from hearing the other. If you are at a large sporting event there is going to be a lot of physical noise that will interfere with your communication with the friend sitting next to you. In this case you will probably have to raise your voice to make sure they can hear you over the roar of the crowd, or the noise of the buzzer, etc. However, if you are texting with someone who is not with you, the loud noise wouldn’t necessarily interfere with your conversation. Physical noise can interfere with the communication differently depending on the channel. Psychological Noise When we communicate, we not only have to manage the interference from cognitive noise, but we also have to keep from being distracted by our own internal noise. Psychological noise is noise within ourselves. For example, if you are reading a book but at the same time you are thinking about where you are going to meet up with friends later that night, your communication is being affected by psychological noise. You can physically read the whole page but not really decode the message within the page's content because you are distracted by your thoughts. Another example could be when you are walking into class and you receive a text message from a friend that you haven’t heard from in a while. But because you are in class, you can’t check your phone right away. So instead of being able to concentrate on the lecture, you are just thinking about what the text message could say. That message has now created psychological noise. Physiological Noise We also have physiological noise. This relates to our bodies on a physical level. Sometimes our bodies speak to us and that can be distracting. For instance, have you ever slept in a way that when you woke up your back or neck hurt? That discomfort may stay with us for hours and that prevents us from active listening or even taking in messages from other communicators. Maybe we have a cast on a broken bone and the itchy nature of that cast is consistently distracting. Any physical distraction that prevents us from taking in our communication partners’ messages is considered physiological noise. Similarly, if you are sitting in class while the instructor is speaking but you are hungry because you didn’t eat breakfast, your body’s needs create thoughts that interfere with your ability to receive the message—and once again noise has impeded communication. This example shows both psychological and physiological noise both interfering with communication being received and understood. Cultural Noise Lastly, we have cultural noise. Cultural noise includes the barriers that exist among people from different cultural groups. This can range from speaking different languages, differences in meaning of nonverbal cues, or differences in cultural dimensions that create misunderstanding within relationships. Cultural noise creates obstacles in meaning that can become problematic in receiving messages accurately and appropriately. One of the most difficult aspects of cultural noise is when we are unaware that it is impacting our ability to be competent in our communication, or when we are unaware that the cultural noise is present within the environment. For example, an American individual is interviewing for a company where the boss conducting the interview is 1.4.6 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528 Filipino. While the company resides in the United States, the boss identifies as collectivistic and finds value in creating a team that focuses on collaboration and group goal setting. The American interviewing for the company identifies as individualistic, and sees their greatest strengths as their self-reliance, freethinking, and having strong initiative. The individualistic person interviewing with the collectivistic boss may not understand the cultural noise that is being created within this situation by highlighting aspects of their work ethic and ability to do the job in ways that are not culturally valued by the person they are speaking to. This cultural noise creates miscommunication between the interviewer and interviewee in a way that would have negative outcomes of them not feeling this job was the right fit, while the interviewee doesn’t get a chance to explain their ability and eagerness for teamwork. Noise is always present in communication, but different types of noise interact with various channels and messages differently. No matter what noise is present, we must learn to manage it if we are going to communicate effectively. Now that you have a better understanding of the individual components of communication, we can turn our attention to the principles of communication. This page titled 1.4: Models of Communication is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Multiple Authors (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform. 1.4.7 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136528 1.5: Interpersonal Communication Fulfills Our Needs Why Study Interpersonal Communication? Studying interpersonal communication is important for several different reasons. First, as we mentioned at the start, we spend a significant amount of time communicating with others. Second, learning about interpersonal communication will help us be more effective communicators in our relationships. Third, exploring something from new perspectives will help us broaden our understanding of ourselves. Finally, improving our interpersonal communication will help us better understand the role that communication serves in our lives. Human beings rely fundamentally on communication to meet various needs. In this section we will talk specifically about physical, instrumental, social, and identity needs. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs We are human and therefore, we are singular. Intrapersonal communication is communication with the self, whereas interpersonal communication is between two people. Interpersonal communication is needed to fulfill our needs. Figure 1.5.1 showcases Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which describes and explains what our needs are and how they affect and drive our interpersonal communication. Figure 1.5.1 : Maslow hierarchy of needs by Tomwsulcer on Wikipedia Commons is in the Public Domain We have personal needs and to achieve fulfilling these needs, we use communication. The hierarchy of needs was created by Abraham Maslow. This model shows us ways we approach communication as a way to fulfill our human needs. We start at the bottom with our most prevalent and basic needs, our physiological needs. We need water and food before we can critically think about problem solving or if we are on track to our career of choice. Then we move to security needs. We need to have health (mental and physical) and feel safe before we can move onto social needs. Social needs, or needs for love and belonging, are how we connect to others. We have a physical and psychological need for affiliation and connection. When these needs are not met they may have negative effects on our development. Next are esteem needs. This category has evolved over time as we learn more about what helps us to achieve and be accomplished. Esteem needs have to do with our relationships to others (interpersonal communication) and ourselves (intrapersonal communication). The highest needs are self-actualization needs. These are the deep- seated goals we have for ourselves and are at the core of who we are and become over time. In Maslow's model we move through our needs from the bottom of the pyramid to the top. It shows us is how we need to fulfill certain needs before other needs and goals can be attained. Despite the fact that we do not always achieve our needs in a linear fashion, this model shows us how our needs are built on and fulfilled by understanding other needs. In understanding where our needs lie, we can better prepare ourselves to reach achievement. This is predicated on the notion that we are individuals with our individual lived experience and culture. These components of our self-concept drive how we interpret and fulfill our needs. Take for instance a scenario where we may be housing insecure. It would be difficult to worry about a career or success at work; however, a successful job would help our housing insecurity. When looking at the model, we start at the bottom of the pyramid and try to focus on how to move toward the top by fulfilling each of our needs. It is important to prioritize our needs. At times it is easy to become hard on ourselves and forget that our needs are unmet, which affects many aspects of our lives. 1.5.1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136527 In Chapter 2, you will learn how the self-concept is formed and reinforced through interpersonal communication. Culture is a fundamental core of our self-concept. In looking at Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, it is important to point out that interpersonal communication is not always hierarchical or unidirectional. However, Maslow does provide a framework for understanding our needs. Culture is how we understand ourselves and helps us to address our needs and how they are fulfilled. Physical Needs Communication is vital to our physical needs. Physical needs are those that keep our mind and body functioning. Communication helps us express our physical needs and identify when they are not being met. When a child tells a parent that they are hungry or tired they are using communication to help fulfill their physical needs. Studies show that there is a link between mental health and physical health. In other words, people who encounter negative experiences, but are also willing to communicate those experiences, are more likely to have better mental and physical health. Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, many articles were written in magazines describing the decline in mental and physical health that people were experiencing due to a lack of communication. Almost all of us at one point or another felt a sense of loneliness or depression due to the lack of social interaction and physical proximity to other people. Research in health communication has shown time and time again that our ability to communicate with others not only benefits our mental health but also our physical health as well. Many health problems—both cognitive and functional—create stress, or are caused because of excess amounts of stress. One way to relieve these tensions and alleviate some of the physical symptoms that may occur is through open communication. It is vital for people to share what they feel, because if they keep their feelings bottled up, then they are more likely to suffer emotionally, mentally, and physically. Instrumental Needs Like physical needs, communication is fundamental to meeting our instrumental needs. Instrumental needs are those we engage in to complete daily tasks. When you show up to the classroom and ask a classmate if someone is sitting in the chair next to them, you are using communication to meet your instrumental needs. Instrumental needs account for much of our daily communication. Instrumental communication is evident in much of our workplace communication both with coworkers and clients/customers. We can also see it in our academic lives when we ask clarifying questions in class or send emails to instructors. It would not be possible to move through our lives without these instrumental conversations. In addition to the practical needs, communication is also influential to our well-being and sense of self. Social Needs Humans are social creatures; we need interaction with other humans to survive and thrive, and communication is fundamental to this social engagement. Relationships are communicative. We rely on communication to build, maintain, and ultimately to end relationships. Think about one of your good friends. Can you remember back to when you first met them? Who initiated the encounter? How did they do so? Was it face-to-face or online? Regardless of the setting or circumstance, you are only friends now because one of you initiated communication and the other reciprocated. When we communicate with others, we share a part of ourselves and over time what we are willing to share becomes more intimate. These interactions are what make our relationships. At their core relationships are communicative. We would not be able to have friends or romantic partners without communication, and without this social interaction we would not be fully human.  Solitary Confinement The importance of social interaction cannot not be understated. The ability to engage with other people is fundamental to our physical and mental health. One area where we can see this reality play out is in the use of solitary confinement as a form of punishment. Former Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy argued in a 2015 opinion that “years on end of near-total isolation exact a terrible price … common side-effects of solitary confinement include anxiety, panic, withdrawal, hallucinations, self-mutilation, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. The effects of social isolation are lethal. Even though people in solitary confinement comprise only 6% to 8% of the total prison population, they account for approximately half of those who die by suicide” (Herring, 2020). It is because of these effects that recent years have seen a renewed call to ban or severely restrict the use of solitary confinement in US prisons. The American Civil Liberties Union of North Carolina along with the North Carolina Prisoner Legal Services is currently suing on behalf of several prisoners held in cells described as no bigger than a parking space for 22 to 24 hours a day (Waggoner, 2019). Another lawsuit was filed by Dennis Hope, who has spent 27 years in solitary confinement in a Texas prison. “His only human contact is with the guards who strip-search and 1.5.2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136527  handcuff him before taking him to another enclosure to exercise, alone. He has had one personal phone call since 1994, when his mother died in 2013. He suffers from depression and paranoia and fears he is going insane.” His petition asks the Supreme Court to rule that such prolonged isolation is a violation of the Eighth Amendment, which prohibits cruel and unusual punishment (Liptak, 2022). Some states have already restricted the use of such extreme measures with positive outcomes. For example, “assaults on employees at Colorado prisons dropped when the state reduced the use of solitary confinement and expanded access to mental health treatment” (Waggoner, 2019). Discussion Questions 1. When has a lack of communication negatively affected you in your life? 2. After understanding the effects of solitary confinement, do you see isolation in our society (and therefore lack of communication) resulting in effects on the human body? Where do you see these effects as prevalent? Identity Needs Finally, communication is critical to our identity. Our sense of who we are is a reflection of how others see us. When someone tells you that you are funny, or smart, or attractive, you internalize these comments and they become a part of how you perceive yourself. An important part of our identity is being a Communication Studies instructor. We like teaching and we think we are good at it. This perception of ourselves is based on the communication that we have with our students. When students in our class are smiling and engaging, when they write comments on our evaluations, etc. this helps to reinforce our perception of ourselves and our identity as an instructor. Communication is also how we present ourselves to others. The biography that we have in our digital classroom on the university learning management system (LMS) allows us to present ourselves to our students by sharing aspects of our identity that we think will help us connect. We also share our identity nonverbally by posting a picture online and by how we present ourselves in the physical classroom. Communication is influential in both developing and sharing our identities. Figure 1.5.2 : Physics Teacher, Tra Nguyen, Unsplash Without communication we would not be able to meet our basic needs, so learning to be more proficient with communication will help us in our daily lives and with our relationships. Taking this course will help you become a more competent communicator, and we hope that will help you navigate these needs more easily and successfully. “Communicative competence is the ability to achieve communicative goals in a socially appropriate manner. It is organized and goal-oriented, i.e. it includes the ability to select and apply skills that are appropriate and effective in the respective context” (Kiessling & Fabry, 2021). You are already on the path to becoming a more competent communicator. As you learn more about the concept you will begin to see changes in your communication skills and behavior. Building communication competence is a life-long endeavor, and this course is just one part of that journey. As you can see there are a number of reasons you should be excited to engage with this text and learn more about interpersonal communication. As we begin that process it is important that we have a shared language to talk about communication moving forward. The next section will lay out some of the key concepts of communication so that we can discuss interpersonal communication. This page titled 1.5: Interpersonal Communication Fulfills Our Needs is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Multiple Authors (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform. 1.5.3 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/136527 1.6: Tools of Interpersonal Communication Complexities of Communication While communication studies discipline experts will highlight throughout this text the many ways communication can benefit relational satisfaction, self awareness, and personal and professional growth, there are also dark sides to communication as well as misconceptions that can thwart our communication goals. Although the dark side of communication and communication misconceptions may sound negative, when we understand the related reasons why they occur and our role in those reasons, we are better able to adapt our skills and respond in a way that is communication competent. Throughout our course of study, we will explore facets of interpersonal communication, in order to set our goals of communicating effectively and appropriately throughout our learning journey.  Common Questions in Interpersonal Communication Any time we begin learning something new, we may find ourselves curious about the subject and want to explore those curiosities in more depth. While the following listed questions and responses are some of the common questions we typically receive when introducing interpersonal communication, there may be more questions you discover as we continue our learning process. Throughout this text we will be working to answer some of these questions, but there are also some quick responses given in the following table to help frame our learning as we continue on. Frequently Asked Questions Question Response Not always. Some problems are bigger than simply “talking it out” Will communication solve all problems? and more communication is not always better. Skill, dedication, and hard work towards creating positive habits is Is being a competent communicator a “natural” talent? how someone strives towards communication competence. Communication involves the intentional and unintentional, conscious Does “communication” just mean talking? and unconscious sending, receiving, and responding of verbal and nonverbal messages. In order to prevent miscommunication, we must work at presenting Should people adapt to my way of communicating to understand me? our message in a way that best fits the needs of the listener.