Principles of Agriculture Workbook PDF

Acknowledgements _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ This workbook is one of a series of workbooks produced by the Teagasc Curriculum Development and Standards Unit. ACKNOW...

Acknowledgements _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ This workbook is one of a series of workbooks produced by the Teagasc Curriculum Development and Standards Unit. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The material in this workbook was developed by: James Maher, Teagasc, Curriculum Development and Standards Unit. The Curriculum Development and Standards Unit would like to acknowledge the input given to the development of this workbook by a wide range of Teagasc staff from Education, Research and Advisory. In addition, it would like to acknowledge in particular the input of John Flannery, Brian Clancy, and Vincent Flynn, for their support in editing. Please note: Regulatory requirements, scheme conditions, technical and market information are subject to ongoing change. Use this workbook as a guideline only, not as an exact interpretation of requirements. No responsibility can be taken for any errors, inaccuracies or out of date information contained in this workbook. Edition 2.0 April 2020 © Teagasc, 2020 The material developed in this workbook is the property of Teagasc and cannot be reproduced without permission from the Head of Curriculum Development and Standards, Kildalton College, Piltown, via Carrick on Suir, Co. Tipperary. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Principles of Agriculture Workbook - Acknowledgements _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Introduction INTRODUCTION Why You Should Study this Workbook This module is intended to give every student a broad introduction to Agriculture. It will provide a basis in terms of knowledge and skills in areas that students may not go on to study in further detail. It is a mandatory component of the Level 5 Certificate in Agriculture. On Completion of This Module You will be able to: Discuss agriculture in a national and global context and the consequent responsibility at farm level including the basic human right to food, food security, quality production, sustainability and environmental responsibilities. Describe plant and animal cells, their organelles, function and division. Describe plant anatomy and its function of monocotyledon and dicotyledonous plants. Describe the anatomy physiology and function of the animal body of common agriculture animals including reproductive systems and various digestive systems. Discuss the basic living processes and life cycles of animals and plants. Investigate Irish agriculture by sector, enterprise, product and market to include dairying, drystock and tillage production. Discuss the production operations for the following agriculture production systems: calf to beef production, spring calving dairy herd, mid-season lamb production, spring barley, and integrated pig production. Discuss a range of other relevant systems to agriculture, horticulture and land use production such as forestry, poultry, nursery stock production, fruit, apiculture and others as appropriate. Discuss animal behaviour and the principles of safely handling livestock. Discuss animal and crop traceability systems in Ireland Identify a range of plants commonly found on Irish farms to include native weeds, grasses, tillage, feed and forage crops and their categories. Practice common agriculture skills and tasks. Implement best practice in controlling illness and disorders in livestock Assessments The module will be assessed by means of written examinations and practical tests as follows: Written examinations - 50% Practical examinations - 50% This workbook is Yours. Complete the revision questions or tasks in every section. Use it during the class as a reference for your various activities. Your Tutor is there to help you and will provide you with extra examples, or extra explanations of points within the text. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Introduction Contents Your Name: ______________________________________ Address: ______________________________________ ______________________________________ Teagasc Centre/College: __________________________ Tutor Name: ________________________________ CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 National and Global Agriculture…………………………...……. 1 Section 1.1 Global agriculture and the human right to food………………....... 1 Section 1.2 Food security & quality food production………………………….... 5 Section 1.3 Attempts to maintain sustainability of food and the environment.. 9 Section 1.4 Role of the farmer in sustainability…………………………………. 12 CHAPTER 2 National and Global Agriculture…………………………...…….. 13 Section 2.1 Overview of Irish agricultural production………..………………..... 14 Section 2.2 Dairy farming in Ireland………………….…………………………... 18 Section 2.3 Beef farming in Ireland………………………………………………. 26 Section 2.4 Sheep farming in Ireland…………………………………………….. 36 Section 2.5 Tillage farming in Ireland…………………………………………….. 42 CHAPTER 3 How Plants Live…………………………………………………...… 45 Section 3.1 Plant cells……………………………..….………..………………..... 46 Section 3.2 Plant development and reproduction.....………………………….... 48 Section 3.3 Plant life cycles……………………………………………………….. 61 CHAPTER 4 Anatomy and Physiology………………………………………...... 65 Section 4.1 External parts and the skeletal system……………………………. 66 Section 4.2 The muscle system….………………......…………………………... 81 Section 4.3 The nervous system..………………………………………………. 83 Section 4.4 The circulatory and respiratory system …………………………… 85 Section 4.5 Reproductive systems……………………………………………….. 92 Section 4.6 Digestive systems……………………………………………………. 101 _____________________________________________________________________________________ Principles of Agriculture Workbook - Contents Contents CHAPTER 5 Animal Behaviour and Safe Handling………………………………. 115 Section 5.1 Animal behaviour and response to surroundings.……………....... 116 Section 5.2 Facilities and safe handling of animals…………………………….. 118 CHAPTER 6 Enterprise Production Operations..…………………………...….. 121 Section 6.1 Calf to 2 year steer beef…………..….………..……………….......... 122 Section 6.2 Spring calving dairy herd …………………………………………….. 126 Section 6.3 Mid season lamb production………....…………………………........ 132 Section 6.4 Spring barley production..…………………………………………….. 136 Section 6.5 Integrated pig production……………………………………………… 140 CHAPTER 7 Animal and Crop Traceability Systems.…………………........……. 151 Section 7.1 Producer quality assurance systems..………..……………….......... 152 Section 7.2 Buyer traceability requirements….......…………………………........ 155 Section 7.3 Role of technology in traceability…………………………………….. 156 CHAPTER 8 Production Operation for Other Enterprises…………………...…. 159 Section 8.1 Farm forestry production ………..….………..……………….......... 160 Section 8.2 Sport horse production ……………………………………………… 171 Section 8.3 Free range egg production …………………………………………. 178 Section 8.4 Organic production system….………………………………………. 184 Section 8.5 Nursery stock production.……………………………………………. 186 Section 8.6 Fruit production……………………………………………………….. 189 Section 8.7 Apiculture………………………………………………………………. 190 CHAPTER 9 Common Agricultural Skills and Tasks………………………...….. 191 Section 9.1 Identification of trees, weeds, and grasses………........................ 192 Section 9.2 Identification of food and forage crops.………………………........ 221 Section 9.3 Identification of external parts of cattle or sheep……..………….. 224 Section 9.4 Tag and register an animal.………………………………………… 227 Section 9.5 Quality assurance scheme records……………………………….. 234 Section 9.6 Assess livestock conditions..………………………………………. 245 Section 9.7 Control the movement of cattle and sheep……………………….. 247 Section 9.8 Assess cattle for weight and value.……………………………….. 253 Section 9.9 Signs of health in livestock………………………………………… 258 Section 9.10 Farm biosecurity measures.………………………………………. 263 _____________________________________________________________________________________ Principles of Agriculture Workbook - Contents National and Global Agriculture Chapter 1 National and Global Agriculture For over 12,000 years, people have cultivated crops and reared animals to feed and sustain themselves, their families and communities. Early farmers realised that they could domesticate animals and surpluses were sold to the local community. From these early beginnings we now have farming systems worldwide that are as diverse as the world population of 7.5 billion that they feed. Each country’s Agricultural food sector usually plays to it’s own resource strengths. For example, grass based systems (supported by the Irish climate and soil type) are more suited to Ireland than in hot dry Southern European countries. These countries in turn are more suited to fruit and wine production for example. One of the major challenges facing the worlds farmers is to be able to produce enough food to feed the growing world population (expected to be 9 billion by 2050), while at the same time protect or enhance the soils and environment that helps us to produce that food. This Chapter looks at global and Irish Agriculture and introduces food security, food quality, protection of the environment, and the role of the farmer. Learning Outcome: On completion of this chapter you should be able to: Discuss agriculture in a national and global context and the consequent responsibility at farm level including the basic human right to food, food security, quality production, sustainability and environmental responsibilities. The chapter is divided into the following sub sections: Human right to food Food security Quality Production Sustainability (economic, social, environmental) Role of farmer. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 1 National and Global Agriculture Section 1.1 Global Agriculture and the Human Right to Food The Human Right to Food (Global) The “right to feed oneself in dignity” is considered an international human right to which many countries are committed (FAO,2017 1). Close to 800 million people worldwide (of a population of 7.5 billion) are hungry going to bed at night so it may be a human right but not all humans currently have access to enough food. To understand how Agricultural food production operates we will look at the global picture first and bring it back to the Irish situation. Globally, the following typically encourage or discourage food production: Encourage food production: Demand for a food product or ingredient Suitable natural resources (land, climate) for production Skilled workforce Sustainable farm incomes Government encouragement or incentives Discourage food production: Surplus stocks (drive down prices) Poor natural resources or unskilled work force Poor income Government restrictions Demand for Food (Global) Food production around the globe can be hugely diverse in terms of the product produced and production methods. The number of people (population) and the eating habits of these people has a major part to play in the demand for food. The chart below gives a picture of how many people Asia (Including China and India) currently has. Every country has its own preferred diet. This has a knock on effect for what people want to eat. 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org Principles of Agriculture Workbook 2 National and Global Agriculture World Population in 2020 (7.5 billion people) 60 60 50 40 % of Population 30 20 17 10 10 6 5 1 0 Aisia Africa Europe South America North America Oceania Source: Worlpopulationreview.com World Population % by continent - 2020 As household incomes grow in an economy the population tends to want to eat more high value food items. For example, people whose diet was mainly rice tend to want foods such as meat and dairy if their incomes rise. = + = Obviously this is not always the case as people are not easily converted to new dietary habits. Supply chains such as the one below need to be in place. Example of a Supply Chain Principles of Agriculture Workbook 3 National and Global Agriculture Consumers and markets can demand a diverse range of food products. While meat and dairy product demand is expected to rise globally there are trends in developed countries for a small number of consumers to choose diets free of meat and dairy products. Foods Traditionally Produced by Location The above map shows staple diets differ by location. As mentioned before products can be traced back to the natural resource and climate advantages of the region. A growing trend is for consumers to have access to foods from all over the world (think of the variety of take away foods available to us as consumers !!). Consumers are becoming more aware and concerned about the quality of this food and the potential impact the production of this food is having on the environment. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 4 National and Global Agriculture Section 1.2 Food Security and Quality Food Production The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) describe food security as where: “ all people at all times have physical and economic access to enough safe and nutritious food to meet their needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” What can effect food security ? Natural disasters and (such as earthquakes, severe weather episodes are environmental reasons for food shortages. Man-made reasons include wars, restrictions on trade and food scares. Since the 2nd world war in the 1940s governments have actively sought to ensure a secure supply of food for their citizens. The European Union Common Agricultural Policy came about in 1970 because the then members (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands). The aim of the Common Agricultural Policy back then was: To increase agricultural productivity by promoting technical progress and by ensuring the rational development of agricultural production and the optimum utilisation of the factors of production, in particular labour; To ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural community, in particular by increasing the individual earnings of persons engaged in agriculture; To stabilise markets; To assure the availability of supplies; To ensure that supplies reach consumers at reasonable prices. Ireland joined the then EEC (European Economic Community) in 1973. The CAP is currently reformed every 5 years (and sometimes more frequently). There has been a gradual shift away from supports being linked to payments by linking supports to environmental or development initiatives. At farm level in Ireland we often think that a harvest failure or disease outbreak for one of our competing countries or products is great because it means more demand for our product and a higher price. This is fine once it does not result in a shortage of essential food for a section of our population who would struggle to pay that increased price and have no other alternative. International Food Security The United Nations FAO has over 180 member countries. The EU is also a member. The FAO works towards reducing hunger and poverty through promoting agricultural development, food security and raising nutritional standards. FAO has 2,500 projects in developing countries. Government departments including the Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) are actively involved in such projects. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 5 National and Global Agriculture Food Quality and Safety at EU level Because food is so important, it is common for Governments to take responsibility for food quality and food safety for their citizens. At European Union level the European Commission has a number of product quality schemes for foods, wines and spirits. PDO Protected Designation of Origin – Product linked to a geographical region. PGI (Protected Geographical Location) – linked to an area where at least one production step takes place TSG Traditional Specialities Guaranteed – traditional mode of production (on domestic market for over 25 years) Exercises: PDO PGI and TSG logos 1. Search websites such as the Department of Agriculture and the Marine website and identify Irish products with PDO, PGI or TSG status ? _________________________________________________________ 2. List two things a company needs to do to qualify their whiskey product to be labelled an Irish Whiskey ? Principles of Agriculture Workbook 6 National and Global Agriculture The EU also have an oversight on legislation and codes of behaviour for areas such as: Food labelling Chemical residues Animal feed Food by Products More on this topic is covered in the Farm Safety and Farm Assurance workbook. EU Food Safety Website https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety_en Principles of Agriculture Workbook 7 National and Global Agriculture Food Quality and Safety in Ireland In Ireland food quality and safety is taken very seriously. Ireland as previously mentioned is a net exporter of food in general meaning we have more food than we can eat. We commonly can have up to 7 times more beef than we can eat for example. That makes us dependant on being able to sell to other countries. Safeguarding our reputation as a very high quality food producer is vital in maintaining these markets and opening new ones. Ireland has a number of organisations including the FSAI (Food Safety Authority of Ireland), Bord Bia, the Department of Agriculture and the Marine, and Teagasc are to promote and protect food quality and safety. Discussion Exercise: 1. Name a recent food security or safety problem. Discuss with your class how it happened and the government response ? _________________________________________________________ More detail on Irish food safety and food quality will be covered later in this workbook and in the Farm Safety and Farm Assurance workbook. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 8 National and Global Agriculture Section 1.3 Attempts to maintain Sustainability of Food and the Environment What is sustainability ? Sustainability is to be “able to maintain something”. Sustainable development thinking similar to food security gained momentum after World War II. Sustainability of Agriculture and rural development has three main elements: Environmental sustainability Economic sustainability Social sustainability Environmental sustainability is where the use of natural resources can be continued without harming the future environment in areas such as air quality, water quality, diversity of species, and climatic conditions. Social sustainability is concerned with maintaining communities in terms of equity, diversity, cohesion, and quality of life. Economic sustainability aims to maintain incomes, trade, and the viability of rural communities. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 9 National and Global Agriculture The Irish government has a number of strategies and action plans for sustainable agriculture including: SHARP (Sustainable Healthy Agri-Food Research Plan This plan identifies important sustainable research topics in from animals, to grass, to the environment to food production to the supply chain to human health). Food Wise 2025 Food Wise 2025 is a strategy led by the Department of Agriculture Food and the Marine and involving the main organisations (public and private) in the farming and Agri-food Sector to target by 2025 to have over: o 85% increase in exports to €19 billion; o 70% increase in value added to €13 billion o 60% increase in primary production to €10 billion and o The creation of 23,000 additional jobs all along the supply chain. (compared to 2013 figures) The Irish Government and Agriculture and Food Sector believe that the demand for milk and meat will continue to rise globally. Foodwise 2025 is an Irish government strategy to develop the Agriculture and Food Sector. Visit https://youtu.be/D4PWrRqcfAQ for a video on Food Wise. Copies of both SHARP and Food Wise 2025 are available on www.agriculture.gov.ie. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 10 National and Global Agriculture International Attempts to maintain sustainability International agreements tend to focus on environmental sustainability. The Paris Agreement signed in December 2015 by 196 countries involves each country planning and reporting on its actions to limit global warming. The European Union spends a considerable amount of money each year on: Research to learn more about sustainable development Developing and enforcing environmental regulations Encouraging through environmental schemes new ways of working and usage of inputs that are more environmentally sustainable. Recent examples include the greening element of the Basic Payment Scheme, and the Nitrates and Water Framework Directives (all of which will be covered in more detail later elsewhere on this course). Principles of Agriculture Workbook 11 National and Global Agriculture Section 1.4 Role of the Farmer in Sustainability Sustainability can appear to be such a huge challenge for an individual that many of us don’t know where to start or don’t believe we can make a difference. Discussion Exercise: 1. What can any one farmer do for sustainability ? Economic ________________________________________________ Social __________________________________________________ Environmental ____________________________________________ Being a farmer often brings with it some responsibilities. Responsibilities can be positive or negative depending on how you look at it. For example farmers tend to have if (lucky enough) families to support, Farmers often feel that they have a responsibility to carry on family traditions. Farmers and their families are often involved in local communities. Farmers are a user of natural resources. The sustainability of these resources (such as air, water and soil) is becoming more and more important for the end consumer. Traditionally farmers enjoyed the challenge of measuring their own performance for yield of milk, meat or crops and the cost of production. There has been a gradual shift to include other measures such as the environment. What will the farmer of tomorrow see as a measure of sustainable success ? Chapter Summary The current world population of 7.5 billion is expected to rise to 9 billion by 2050. The FAO consider the right to feed oneself in dignity as a human right. With 800 million people hungry government’s role is to ensure a secure food supply that is safe, affordable and of high quality. Sustainability is in its simplest form is “to be able to maintain something” It can be economic, social and environmental. The challenge for Irish farmers at farm level is to maintain and improve economic productivity while sustaining the raw materials we use (air, water and soil) and where possible get involved in sustaining the local community. Principles of Agriculture Workbook 12 Irish Agriculture by Sector Chapter 2 Irish Agriculture by Sector Agriculture, food and forestry is the largest Irish owned sector in the Irish economy. Ireland has a strong international reputation for producing high quality safe food in a sustainable manner. Ireland’s grass based livestock industry competes well in terms of cost and environmental sustainability with our European neighbours who typically rely on feeding concentrates and forage. Ireland is a net exporter for livestock products. This brings its own challenges in terms of maintaining and finding markets. Ireland is producing food for other countries which means that any effects that this production has on the environment needs to be monitored as well. This chapter gives an overview of the Irish agriculture before focusing on the dairy, drystock and tillage sectors. Learning Outcome: Investigate Irish Agriculture by sector, enterprise, product and market to include dairying, drystock and tillage. This chapter contains the following topics: Overview of Irish Agricultural Production Dairying Drystock (Beef and Sheep) Tillage. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 13 Irish Agriculture by Sector Section 2.1 Overview of Irish Agricultural Production The agriculture and food industry is a major contributor to the Irish economy, employment and exports. Agri-food is our most important indigenous sector. There are a number of factors which indicate the importance of the agri-food sector to the economy including: Contribution of agricultural production to the economy Proportion of the workforce working in agriculture and food (8.6% of the working population). Agricultural food and drink exports. The agribusiness sector is covered in more detail in the Farm Business and Technology module. This chapter will focus more on production and products. Production Ireland has a number of advantages over other countries for food production, such as having suitable soils and a mild climate with (often complained about) generous rainfall. The value of Irish Agricultural Production (Output) in 2019 was €8.01 billion. Beef and dairy categories accounted for 30% and 40%. Other sectors to have a share in output included pigs (8%), sheep (3%), crops (3%), and others (8%). Irish Agricultural Output (2019) 8% 11% 30% Cattle Milk 3% Pigs 8% Sheep Cereals Others 40% Source: Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine Fact Sheet. The detailed report is available via: https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/foodindustrydevelopmenttrademar kets/agri-foodandtheeconomy/publications/December2019Factsheet201219.pdf Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 14 Irish Agriculture by Sector There are 137,100 family farms in Ireland and the average size is 32.4 hectares. Of the 137,100 family farms 121,100 were held by males and 16,000 by females. Farmers under 35 years of age make up 5.4%, and farmers 65 years and over make up 30%. Ireland covers an area of 6.9 million hectares, 4.4 million hectares is used for agriculture and 730,000 hectares for forestry. In Ireland 81% of agricultural area is devoted to pasture, hay and grass silage (3.6 million hectares), 11% to rough grazing (0.5 million hectares) and 8% to crops, fruit & horticulture production (0.36 million hectares). The map below gives a rough guide as to the most common farm enterprises in each region in Ireland. This is only a guide as on the ground there can be some regions with a mix of every enterprise. Mixed Mixed grazi & Livestock Mixed Employment in the Agriculture and Food Sector The CSO (Central Statistics Office) recorded 173,000 employed in the agriculture and food sector in 2018, which is 7.7% of total employment in Ireland. The chart below shows that food processing accounts for 32% of that total. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 15 Irish Agriculture by Sector Self Sufficiency Ireland produces more of some food products than it can use (consume). This allows us to export some products. Looking at the chart below 100% is what Ireland needs each year. We are producing almost 700% of the beef we need (7 times what we will use ourselves). This chart is useful for telling us how much we depend on export markets (especially for dairy and beef). For example, for every 7 beef animals we produce we need to be able to sell 6 outside of Ireland. If we have problems with export markets, we have more cattle on the home market (which can affect prices). Export Markets Where do all the food products go ? In 2018 Ireland exported €13 billion worth of food and drink products. The chart below shows the main destinations for our food and non food products. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 16 Irish Agriculture by Sector Green House Gas Emissions Ireland's total GHG emissions per person of population are among the highest in the EU, and of the total GHG emissions from agriculture accounts for the biggest share with 32%. Ireland is one of the more environmentally efficient food producers having a grass based system, but the amount of food Ireland produces requires us to be environmentally aware of our own farm’s carbon footprint to avoid damage to the environment and any financial penalties in relation to GHG emission targets. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 17 Irish Agriculture by Sector Section 2.2 Dairy Farming in Ireland The EU introduced milk quotas in the mid 1980’s to cap milk production in the EU. This prevented dairy expansion in Ireland and the national dairy herd declined after the introduction of quotas. EU milk quotas were removed in April 2015. Irish milk production has expanded since quota removal. Ireland’s milk production is grass based making Ireland a competitive milk producer. Profile of Irish Dairy Sector: There are under 18,000 active milk producers in Ireland. There are over 1.5 million dairy cows. Average herd size is over 90 cows and is expected to increase. National milk production exceeds 8 billion litres. Average milk yield per cow is over 5,300 litres per cow. Average milk solids (fat and protein kg) is the region of 380 kg per cow per year. Ireland accounts for about 5% of EU milk production at present. Germany and France account for over 20% each of EU production. Milk production accounts for about 30 % of Gross Agricultural Output (GAO). There are over 30 milk co-operatives and public limited companies, of which 12 are involved in milk processing. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 18 Irish Agriculture by Sector Exercise: list the dairy processors you are familiar with Main Dairy Processors Discussion: For any of the processors above discuss their role in the development of dairy farms: Irish Dairy Production Systems Creamery Milk – Summer Milk Creamery milk production is the most common milk production system in Ireland with over 85% of cows calving in the spring. Cows are compactly calved in the spring, graze grass for most of the lactation period and are fed moderate amounts of concentrates. Cows are dried off and housed in the October to November period depending on grass availability and weather conditions. Grazed grass is the cheapest feed available on the farm; summer milk production is an efficient system which gives good financial returns. Cows grazing as part of a creamery milk system Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 19 Irish Agriculture by Sector Liquid Milk - Winter Milk Winter milk production systems have developed to provide liquid milk distributors and milk processing companies with a uniform milk supply pattern throughout the year. Companies offer price incentives to farmers to produce winter milk. Calving occurs in the September to October period and again in the February to March period to give all year round milk supply. Autumn calving cows are fed intensively over the winter period, let out to grass in the spring (March) and dried off in July/August. The spring calving cows are treated as for summer milk production. For liquid milk a minimum daily quota supply and higher milk quality specifications have to be met. If these criteria are not met the milk will not qualify for bonus payments, even though the extra costs of production have been incurred. Liquid milk systems typically have extra feed costs Products and Markets Over 80% of Irish milk production is exported and dairy exports are worth over €4 billion annually. Export marketing is co-ordinated by Ornua (formerly the Irish Dairy Board). Ornua markets dairy products such as butter under the Kerrygold brand which is known worldwide. Our main dairy exports are consumer and catering products such as butter, cheese, and milk powder (e.g. baby milk formulas). We also export dairy products as food ingredients for food manufacturing (milk powders, chocolate crumb and casein i.e. milk protein). Irish dairy products are exported worldwide but the UK and the rest of the EU are our main markets. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 20 Irish Agriculture by Sector Table: Main Irish Dairy Export Markets Export Destination % Share of Exports UK 25 Continental EU 26 International markets 51 Seasonality of Milk Production For creamery producers and processors milk production is seasonal, with lactations beginning in February/ March and ending in October November. This poses a challenge for the processor in that they have processing facilities that are not working to full capacity all year round and the farmer still has to feed and look after his herd in the dry winter months. Farmers have chosen the creamery milk option for a number of reasons including its lower grass based costs, and many value the opportunity to take a break from the milking workload for the winter months. Seasonality of Irish creamery milk versus EU milk 16% 14% 12% 10% Ireland 8% 6% EU 4% 2% 0% Seasonality of Irish creamery vs EU milk production The chart above shows that the Irish grass based creamery milk system is different to the typical EU system of producing milk all year round with high levels of supplementary indoor feeding. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 21 Irish Agriculture by Sector Milk Prices Creamery milk prices are quoted in € per kg of milk solids and cents per litre. Price per litre is based on: Milk Solids (MS) content (mainly Protein and Fat), Protein and Fat content have a significant bearing on the price per litre paid. Fat % and protein % change for different times of the lactation. The chart below shows average figures for fat and protein % by month. Average Fat and Protein % by month 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 % 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Fat Content (%) Protein Content (%) Milk Quality, Total Bacterial Count (TBC) and the Somatic Cell Count (SCC). Price penalties may apply if the TBC exceeds 50,000 and the SCC exceeds 400,000. Other (specific requirements). Levies and Deductions and Bonuses: There are a range of deductions including an Ornua marketing levy, state levies (e.g. animal disease), transport charges etc. Some processors offer a price bonus for lower TBC and SCC figures. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 22 Irish Agriculture by Sector Exercise: 1. Check a real milk price statement to see the price quoted and the deductions. _________________________________________________________ 2. Check the farming press for the best base (before bonuses) milk price currently offered by processors ? _________________________________________________________ Price Volatility Now that the milk quota is gone, farmers can expand production provided they can generate the resources (such as land, cows, labour, and money). A major concern for both farmers and the dairy industry is the growing exposure to world market price fluctuations. World prices are largely guided by supply and demand. As an exporting country Ireland benefits from high world prices and suffers when world prices drop when stocks of dairy products are high. Ornua Dairy Purchase Price Index (PPI) The graph above is the Ornua purchase price index where the monthly price of dairy products are compared to their 2010 value. As the graph shows 2016 was a challenging year. 100 = 2010 price). For farmers with higher than average borrowing (as many of the expanding dairy farmers have) they have to monitor every expense and make decisions based on the cash flow available. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 23 Irish Agriculture by Sector Exercise/ Discussion topics: 1. Check https://www.ornua.com/ornua-ppi/ for the most up to date dairy purchase price index. _________________________________________________ 2. Taking the current month milk price how does it compare to the same month last year ? __________________________________________________ 3. What can a farmer and their co-op do to protect themselves against changing prices due to market volatility ? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 24 Irish Agriculture by Sector Irish Dairy Industry Strengths Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (as described in 2015 as part of the Food Wise 2025 report) 1 Strengths Weaknesses Low cost grass fed production Comparative lack of scale at Low carbon intensity production processing level and sustainability credentials Commodity product mix Reputation for world class food Seasonality of production safety standards Skills availability Access to 130 export Low rate of land mobility destinations High levels of recent investment at processing and farm level World class research capability Opportunities Threats Production expansion with end Food safety incident of milk quotas Animal disease outbreak Scope to move up value chain Cross contamination with focus on more B2C, IF, Raw material supply ingredients and nutrition Extreme price volatility products Failure to protect and measure Increased importance of the impact on the natural third country markets (China, environment Africa, Gulf, US) Green sustainable systems allowing for differentiation and branding Somatic Cell Count – cellcheck to improve quality 1 https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/ Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 25 Irish Agriculture by Sector Section 2.3 Beef Farming in Ireland Beef production is the largest meat farming enterprise in Ireland and export industry. Profile of the Irish Beef Sector 2 Ireland is the fifth largest beef exporter in the world and the largest exporter of beef in Europe. It is based on calves from the suckler and dairy herds. Beef accounts for 30% of gross agricultural output and 23% of total food and drink exports from Ireland. Beef self-sufficiency is estimated at over 650 % in Ireland. 588,000 tonnes of beef were produced in 2018 with an estimated 530,000 tonnes of beef exported worth approximately €2.4 billion. Ireland’s beef is reared typically on a grass-fed diet 950,000 beef suckler cows are kept on just under 80,000 farms. The national cattle herd is around 6.5 million head. Beef cattle for the export market are slaughtered at one of around 30 approved export meat processing plants Over 90% of Irish beef is exported. Ireland is very dependent on the U.K. and E.U. markets, therefore supplying what these markets require is essential. There are many systems of cattle production and breeds. The majority are grass based. The beef breeds used influence market opportunities, outlets the price obtained. 145,000 cattle were exported live from Ireland worth approximately €100 million. Suckler cow 2 CSO livestock Survey- https://www.cso.ie/en/statistics/agriculture/livestocksurveydecember/ Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 26 Irish Agriculture by Sector Systems of Beef Production Before we talk about cattle systems it is important to look at commonly used names and descriptions in regard to cattle. Table: Common Names and Descriptions Common Sex Age* Description Name Calf M/F up to 6 mths Newborn Weanling M/F 7 mths to 12 mths Young animal, weaned - before becoming a yearling * Yearling M/F over 1 year Animal over 12 months Heifer F Day 1+ Immature - not yet had calves Cow F 2 years old + Female after start of first lactation Suckler Cow F 2 years old + Had at least one calf which is sucking the mother Bullock/Steer M 3 weeks + Castrated male Bull M 9 mths + Entire male (not castrated) Store M/F 12 mths + An animal requiring an extended period to finish normally from 12 months of age up to 30 months Ages given in the table above should be taken as a guideline rather than an exact figure. The life cycle begins with the birth of the calf. The calf is the common starting point of the beef production cycle. Suckler Calves The calf stage lasts from birth to weaning in the case of suckler calves. Suckler calves are normally weaned off the cow at about 8-9 months of age. Spring born suckler calves are weaned around October. Autumn born calves are weaned around June to July. Many suckler farmers sell their calves after weaning. Suckler cow and calf prior to weaning Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 27 Irish Agriculture by Sector Dairy Calves Over 85% of dairy calves are born in January-June period. Some dairy farmers particularly those with very large intensive dairy farms sell some or all of the dairy bull calves shortly after birth. Castrated Calves The majority of male calves are castrated. Castrated male calves are called bullocks or steers. Male calves that are not castrated are referred to as young bulls or entire males. Most of our main markets prefer us to supply steer beef to them. Most dairy farmers will castrate bull calves before seven months of age. Many suckler farmers do not castrate their suckler calves if they are selling them for export market as suckler bull calves. Bull Beef Finishing Systems (15 to 20 months) A bull is any male at least nine months old who is not castrated. Bull beef production animals are finished at about 16 months old. While bull beef production has not been traditionally common in Ireland it has been more popular in recent years. Past markets for young bulls have not been secure or stable. Main point of note on the system include: Bulls grow at least 8% faster than steers They are more efficient converters of feed and have about 5% less fat in their carcases. Bulls can be housed at 7 - 8 months of age and finished indoors on good quality silage plus high levels of concentrates so as to enable slaughter at 14 - 18 months of age. It’s possible to finish young bulls on grass in their second year instead of indoor feeding, but this can be a difficult system to manage well. Bull beef systems are best developed in partnership with a meat factory to guarantee against unreliable markets. Production systems linked to calves include: Systems (guidelines) Age at sale Calf to weanling 7-8 months Calf to yearling 1 year Calf to store 1½ - 2 years Calf to 2 year old beef 2 year Calf to 20 year old beef 2½ years Calf to bull beef production 15 - 18 months Heifer beef production 1½ - 2 years Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 28 Irish Agriculture by Sector There are generally. At least 4 different main stages can be identified. linked to different stages of the beef animal's life cycle Stage I: Calf Stage (0 - 8 months): Calves (average weight 45 kg) may be born on- farm or bought-in. Bought in newly born calves will frequently come from a dairy herd. The buying-in price of calves has a major influence on the profitability of any beef production system. Integrated systems are cattle production systems which take the animal through a number of stages through to finish as a beef animal. Profitability is influenced by technical efficiency. Stage II - Weanlings (8 - 12 months): Weanlings at the end of their first grazing season may be kept on or sold to another farmer. Selling of weanlings in October or November is more common on farms where suckling is practised. Stage III - Yearling (12 months +): Yearling = male/female animal over 12 months. This term is used to describe animals sold in the spring following their birth. These animals are kept by the breeder over one winter and sold as yearlings in spring. Stage IV - (Store cattle) : A store normally refers to animals, male or female, typically from 12 months of age. Stores animals still require further feeding before they are suitably finished for slaughter. Depending on the type of animal, its weight and body condition a store animal may require a further 6 months to 1½ years to reach finish weight. Prices and Markets for Beef Meat Factory Prices: Meat export plants buy finished beef cattle (heifers, steers, young bulls and cull cows). Factories price quotes for finished cattle are usually quoted in cents per kg carcase weight (cents/kg) but they may also be quoted as € per kg. Factory prices are quoted taking into account the following: Type of animal (heifer, steer, young bull, cull cows). Prices quoted for cull cows will normally be less than for heifers, steers or bulls. Carcase weight (kg) of the animal (there may be a penalty if carcases are too heavy or too light for certain markets) Conformation Score (see below) Fat Score (see below) Supply and Demand affects the price quotes (c/kg) All animals slaughtered in meat factories are classified by the EU Beef Carcase Classification Scheme which assesses conformation and fat score: Carcase Conformation: Conformation reflects the shape and muscling of the carcase. Well-shaped (well-rounded and well-muscled) carcases produce a higher yield of sellable meat. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 29 Irish Agriculture by Sector There are five main conformation classes E.U.R.O.P. They are listed below; E conformation: Indicates that the carcase is exceptionally muscled and well- shaped. E scores are more common in continental European countries (France, Italy) that finish continental breeds as young bulls. In Ireland E scores are rare. U conformation grade: Many cattle bred from suckler herds are grade U. R grade: The majority of cattle fall into Rs and O grades. O grade: P grade: Poorly shaped (narrow shape, more bony looking and poorly muscled). P grades have a lower yield of sellable meat particularly of the high value cuts. Some dairy cattle and many dairy cull cows fall into the P grade. Normally prices quoted for a U shaped animal are higher than for an R grade, R prices will be higher than an O grade, and so on. Carcase Fat: There are five main fat classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 1 is the leanest and 5 is the fattest. Carcases at fat score 5 are considered over fat. Over fat carcases produce a high degree of waste (fat) that cannot be sold. Prices quoted for over fat animals are lower than for other fat grades. Carcases at fat score 1 and 2 are under finished. Generally factories will avoid buying such animals unless they there is a special market outlet e.g. well shaped very lean young bulls at fat score two. The sex of the animal is denoted by the letters A (young bull), B (bull), C (steer), D (cow) and E (heifer). Quality Payment System: Because Conformation and Fat Score are so important to the pricing of finished cattle the conformation classes (EUROP) and fat classes (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) are divided into subclasses under the Quality Payment System: The Quality Payment System is designed to give a price bonus or premium to well-shaped animals (e.g. conformation score U) that are not over fat (e.g. Fat score 3). Under the Quality Payment System conformation and fat score classes are sub-divided into the following; o Conformation class U has three subclasses: U+, U=, U- o Fat class 4 has three subclasses: 4+, 4=, 4- Mechanical Grading Factories have a grading machine which determines the grade. Having a machine decide the grade is difficult for some farmers as there is less chance for appeal if the farmer disagrees with the grade. There are procedures in place to verify and calibrate a sample of graders each year. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 30 Irish Agriculture by Sector Exercise: Check the beef factory price reports in the farming press for a given week and find the price for the following grades of animals: Complete the table below: Date:________________ Factory Animal Type Conformation Fat Price (c/kg) or € Steer U+ 3+ Steer P+ 3= Heifer R= 4+ Heifer U= 4+ Cull Cow P+ 3+ Cull Cow U= 4= Calculating the Gross Factory Price; Calculate the gross price (€) a farmer will receive from a meat factory for an animal if: Calculate the gross price (€) a farmer will receive from a meat factory for an animal if: The carcase weight is 380 kg The price per kg carcase (cent/kg) is 370 = €3.70  380 kg × €3.70 = €1406 Levies, Deductions and Bonus There are a number of deductions to the gross price paid to a farmer for an animal sent to the factory. These include: Meat Inspection Fees (veterinary) Disease Levy (Bovine Disease Eradication or BDE) Bord Bia Levy Insurance Charge Clipping charge: Dirty animals are clipped in the factory lairage. Haulage charge: If factory arranges transport of the animal. There may also be a bonus: For quality assured animals (Depending on conformation, fat, age, animals must be 70+ days on the finishing farm) For animals produced for very specific markets (niche markets – organic, Hereford Prime, Angus etc.) Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 31 Irish Agriculture by Sector Seasonality The chart below 3 shows that its not only dairy where prices change with the season. The prices are for finished cattle and again it is linked to supply and demand. Its important to note that price is highest in Spring when supply is lowest and vice versa in Autumn. Some suckler farmers Autumn calve a portion of their herd to try and benefit from this. There can be extra challanges with this in terms of workload and additional feed and housing associated costs. Average Price for Steers 500-549kg (2019) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Seasonality of Cattle Price Livestock Marts: All animals are weighed and sold by auction in a livestock mart. Prices may be reported in a number of ways: Cents/kg live weight (500 kg animal at 185 cents per kg = €925) €/ kg liveweight (500 kg animal at €1.85 per kg = €925) €'s above €1/kg liveweight (500kg animal at €425 above the weight = €925) Prices may be reported as €’s below €1/kg liveweight (only applies when prices drop below €1/kg liveweight) These are ways that cattle mart prices might be expressed. However the (cents/kg or €/kg) are the more accurate ways of reporting live cattle prices and are used in the official mart price reports in the weekly farming press. 3 CSO Price per head 450-499kg bullocks. CSO statbank. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 32 Irish Agriculture by Sector Exercise: Check the mart prices in the farming press. Date :_________ Price (cent per Mart Animal Type & Weight Range kg or € per kg Steer (400 - 500kg) Steer (500 - 600kg) Heifer (400 - 500) Weanling bull (300 - 400kg) Weanling heifer (200 - 300kg) Cattle Sales For the most recent sales figures check out; http://www.bordbia.ie/industry/farmers/Pages/default.aspx Our main export market is the United Kingdom Continental Europe is the second most important market; France, Italy, Holland and Scandinavia are our main markets. We export a small amount of beef to international markets such as Russia and the Middle East. Our export pattern can vary considerably over time. A number of years ago we relied heavily on international markets. Live Exports: Ireland exports live cattle to countries both within the EU and outside the EU. In 2018 247,000 cattle were exported live. The main market for live cattle exports is the UK. A lot of live cattle are traded in Northern Ireland. The main European demand is for good quality suckler weanlings for finishing in Continental Europe feedlots (e.g. Spain, Italy). This has driven an improvement in the quality of our weanlings There is also a demand for dairy calves for veal production with Holland being an important customer. Live cattle exports vary considerably. There is a fixed price per kg or 100 kg liveweight for live exports. The animals are weighed and the price is calculated; e.g. Price €2.10 per kg live-weight (= €2.10/kg) Animal weight = 350 kg Animal value = €735 (350 x €2.10 Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 33 Irish Agriculture by Sector Market Requirements Different countries and regions have specific requirements for their market. Even within a country, different buyers may have very different specifications. Here are some very broad examples of the type of carcass that meat buyers in the European Union look for and these are a guideline only*; Country Type Specifications for countries Market UK Steers Carcases not too heavy (280-340kg) & Heifers Moderate fat cover (R3, R4). Carcases over 270kg France: Steers Heavier carcases (380kg+), Good conformation (E, U) and Lean carcases (fat score 3) Netherlands Steers Heavy but small boned carcases i.e. & Belgium Heifers Belgian blue, limousine or Blonde d’Aquitaine. Heavy carcases preferred Italy Heifers Carcase weight (260-280kg), Good conformation (E, U, R), lean carcases (3, 4L), fat colour may be important, niche market Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 34 Irish Agriculture by Sector Irish beef Industry SWOT (as described in 2015 as part of the Food Wise 2025 report) 4 Strengths Weaknesses Grass reared, welfare friendly Land transfer, mobility and production system structural issues Specialist suckler beef production Low profitability at farm level and Cattle and beef traceability dependence on direct payments systems Skill gaps at all levels of the Credible and sustainable quality supply chain assurance scheme National cost competitiveness, High penetration of high-end retail especially utilities and labour outlets across the EU Lack of scale across the sector Strong reputation in traditional combined with demographic markets factors Capacity and capability to meet Dependency on the UK market demand. while the reputation of Irish beef is less well known in new and developing markets. Opportunities Threats Global growth in protein demand Impact of animal disease incident Developing a brand image for Food safety incident Irish beef based on superior Health image of beef products attributes to secure additional Raw material supply changes markets and price premiums linked to dairy expansion Building Ireland’s reputation for Failure to adopt carbon efficient beef production in new markets practices (USA, Africa and Asian markets, Potential negative impacts of particularly China) which can trade deals absorb any increased production Future CAP reform. Use of genomics, breeding indices and sexed semen to improve beef quality output from the dairy herd and technical efficiencies in the suckler herd Potential markets for niche high grade products Fifth quarter and meat by- products. An additional concern for the industry is the effect on trade with the UK resulting from their decision to leave the EU. 4 https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/ Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 35 Irish Agriculture by Sector Section 2.4 Sheep Farming in Ireland Sheep are the fourth most important animal enterprise in Ireland in terms of financial output. The breeding ewe flock has been declining annually in recent years as producers move away from sheep production to pursue alternative enterprises. Sector Importance and Structure: 5 There were over 5,142,000 sheep in Ireland in June 2019. The average flock size is 106 ewes. There are two main sectors in sheep farming; The lowland sector and the mountain / hill sector. Irish sheep breeds are: 26% mountain 18% mountain cross 23% lowland 33% lowland cross Lowland Sheep Sheep and Lamb Output: Net production in 2018 was just under 3 million head. Sheep meat self- sufficiency is estimated at over 330%. Total sheep industry output is worth about €270milion. Ireland is the sixth largest sheep producer in the EU but is the largest net sheep meat exporter in the EU. Sheep accounts for 3% of Gross Agricultural Output. Prices and Markets: The UK and France continue to be the core markets for Irish sheep meat accounting for almost 60% of total export volumes. Ireland exports over €315 million of sheep meat. 5 DAFM sheep and goat census has up to date figures https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/animalhealthwelfare/animalidentificationmovement/sheepgoatcensus/ Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 36 Irish Agriculture by Sector Lamb factories and abattoirs buy lambs, hogget’s and cull ewes. Factories price quotes for lamb are usually quoted in cents per kg carcase weight (cents/kg). Sheep prices may be quoted in the farming papers as including or excluding VAT. Factory prices take into account the following: Type of animal (e.g. spring lamb, hoggets, ewes): Prices quoted for ewes will normally be less than for lamb. Prices for spring ‘Easter’ or ‘early’ lamb can be much higher than for lamb sold during the summer. Carcase weight (kg) of the animal (there may be a penalty if carcasses are too heavy or too light for certain markets). Conformation Score and Fat score: There is a similar Lamb Carcase Classification grid (EUROP conformation and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 fat class) as in cattle. However there is less emphasis on conformation in lamb pricing relative to cattle pricing. Some factories may offer a bonus for very well shaped lambs (U grade) or penalise on heavier lamb carcass. Supply and Demand. As an exercise check the lamb factory price reports in the farming press for a given week and find the price for the following grades of animals and fill in the table below. Lamb Factory Price Quotes: Price Animal (c/kg Factory Bonus/Penalty Type Incl. VAT ) Spring Lamb Lamb Hogget Ewe Calculating Price: Calculate the gross price (€) a farmer will receive from a lamb factory for an animal if: The carcase weight is 20 kg The price per kg carcase (cent/kg) is 500 = €5 o 20kg × €5 = €100 Levies, Deductions and Bonuses As we saw with beef cattle there are number deductions to the gross price paid to a farmer for a lamb sent to the factory. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 37 Irish Agriculture by Sector There may also be a bonus for: Quality assured lamb Animals produced for very specific markets (e.g. niche markets – organic lamb) Livestock Marts: Mart prices for sheep are often reported in the faming papers as €’s over €1 per kg liveweight or € per head. The price for a 40 kg lamb may be reported as €60 over (the weight) or €100 per head Exercise: Check mart prices in the farming press Mart Type & Weight Price €’s over €1 Range per Kg liveweight Sheep meat Exports: Ireland is the largest net sheep meat exporter in the EU. We export about 70 percent of our sheep meat. The EU is only 75 percent self-sufficient in sheep meat. Ireland exports over 35,000 tonnes of sheep meat per year We import about 3,000 tonnes of sheep meat annually Ireland consumes about 16,000 tonnes of sheep meat annually Market Requirements: Our main markets (France and the UK) require lamb carcases in the weight range 18-20kg. Carcases should have good conformation and not over fat. Carcases should be free from blemishes or damage (e.g. carcase bruising caused by rough handling, lifting the animal by the wool, abscesses caused by poor hygiene if injecting sheep) Mutton: Ewe meat is generally known as mutton. It has a higher fat content than lamb. Most ewe meat is exported and sold for further processing to go into sausages and kebabs. It is rarely eaten as a joint meat in Ireland. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 38 Irish Agriculture by Sector Wool: The wool industry is limited in Ireland whereas in Australia wool is an important product from sheep farming. The quality of wool from different breeds varies according to the traditional weather elements they have had to contend with. Sheep Production Systems: Before we talk about sheep systems it is important to look at commonly used names and descriptions in regard to sheep. Table: Common Names and Descriptions in Sheep Production Species Common Sex Age* Description Name Lamb M/F up to 6 mths New-born Sheep Hogget M/F 7-8 mths+ A sheep in its second calendar year (weaned) Ewe F 12 mths+ Mature - had at least one lamb Wether M Week 1+ Castrated male Ram M 8 mths+ Entire male Store M/F 3 mths+ Requiring a period to finish * Age given in the table above should be taken as a guideline rather than an exact figure. Sheep Production Systems There are four main systems of sheep production in Ireland 1. Mid –Season Lamb Production: This is the most common system of lowland sheep production. The main lambing period is March. Grass based production system with only low levels of meal fed. Lambs are weaned in July with most of the lamb (75%) finished off grass over the summer and autumn. Ewes go to the ram in October. 2. Early Lamb Production: Early lamb is also a lowland sheep based system. In this system, ewes are sponged to trigger ovulation and mated in July/August - out of the natural breeding season. They subsequently lamb in December and January. The lambs are sold for the spring or Easter market where they should receive a premium price to cover the extra costs associated with this system. The extra costs are mainly derived from extra meal to the ewe after lambing and creep meal given to the lamb. Sponging is also a cost associated with early lamb production. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 39 Irish Agriculture by Sector 3. Hill Sheep Production: This is an extensive system in which ewes lamb down in April and May. The lamb output per ewe is low. They are bred late in the season in November and December. The lambs are sold from August onwards. Many lambs from this system become store lambs for late finishing. Cheviot is the main ewe breed used on lower sheltered hills while Blackface Mountain ewes dominate the more exposed hills and mountains. 4. Store Lamb Finishing: Many lambs (e.g. late born lambs) will not be finished off grass by the autumn. These ‘store’ lambs are often purchased by specialist store lamb finishers. May be finished at grass over the winter and fed some meal. They may be finished outdoors on root (swede) or catch crops (kale or rape) or finished indoors on concentrate based diets. They are sold to lamb factories as hoggets the following spring. Profitability will depend on the store buying price, the hogget selling price, the weight gain over the winter and the cost of feed and upkeep over the winter. Seasonality Like the dairy and beef sheep meat prices have seasonal variations. Sheep meet tends to peak in price around Easter time when demand is greater than supply. Sheep Price Seasonality Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 40 Irish Agriculture by Sector Sheep industry S.W.O.T. prepared in 2015 as part of Food Wise 2025 Strengths Weaknesses Grass based production systems Seasonality of supply Good export performance Viability of sheep farming is High net value added product heavily dependent on direct Breed improvement programmes supports to the producer Credible and sustainable quality Higher age profile of sheep assurance scheme farmers Positive socio-economic and High relative price point at environmental impact in hill/ consumer level mountain areas Lack of significant third country markets outside the EU Opportunities Threats Securing access to new markets Food safety incident in Asia, Africa and North Disease outbreak America Difficulty to maintain Growing ethnic population consumption levels Growing demand in China is Failure to protect and leading to reduced NZ imports measure the impact on the into Europe natural environment Expand its product range and exploit the image of sheepmeat as a particularly natural healthy product Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 41 Irish Agriculture by Sector Section 2.5 Tillage farming in Ireland Tillage and horticultural products cover 8% of the agricultural area in Ireland. The horticultural sector is an important generator of output and employer in itself (with an output of €350 m and employment of close to 15,000). The horticulture sector is profiled later in this workbook. Tillage is the term we give in Ireland to cultivated crop farming including cereals, oilseeds, brassicas, and protein crops. The term more commonly used in Europe would be arable farming. Tillage Sector Importance and Structure Cereals output represents €232 million which equates to 3.9% of goods output in the Irish Agricultural sector. In 2019, 8% of the of the agriculture area in Ireland devoted to crops counted for 8% including: o Barley made up 173,000 Ha o Wheat at 61,400 Ha o Oats 22,900 Ha and o Potatoes at 8,500 Ha (CSO, 2019) Ireland is 92% self-sufficient in cereals Field of Wheat Table: Average yield per hectare for each crop 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Winter wheat 9.3 10.2 11 9.7 10.4 8.9 Spring wheat 8.1 8.3 8.6 8 8.2 6.2 Winter oats 8.1 8.7 9.2 8.3 8.9 7.9 Spring oats 7 7.3 7.7 7.3 7.6 5.6 Winter barley 9.5 9.3 10.2 8.6 9.1 8.8 Spring barley 7.2 7.5 7.7 7.3 7.9 5.6 Beans and peas 5.2 5.7 6.5 5.7 6.6 2.7 Oilseed rape 3.6 3.6 4.5 3.5 4.1 3.9 Potatoes 38.2 40.5 42.3 38.9 44.9 33.2 Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 42 Irish Agriculture by Sector Irish cereals / tillage sector S.W.O.T. as described in 2015 as part of the Food Wise 2025 report. Strengths Weaknesses Local demand for high energy High disease pressure, small and high protein feeds to and fragmented holdings supplement grass based diets in resulting in high production growing dairy feed market costs. High yield potential Limited tillage research Small scale of Irish sector means capacity it can target high value export Technology deficit for some markets crops Premium market for malting Lack of trading standards for barley inter farm trading of crops Developing market for wheat and Limited land availability with a barley to supply the distilling high proportion of production industry. on leased or rented land. Nutritional and health benefits. Opportunities Threats Expansion in feed demand post Vulnerable to increasing input milk quota using home produced costs feed sources Lack of efficiency on farms Increased demand for malting Cheap imports of GM crops barley and wheat by drinks Land availability industry Disease Greening under CAP will Failure to protect and measure promote more crop rotation the impact on the natural Development of lifestyle environment. enhancing niche products Expansion in production of native protein feedstuffs. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 43 Irish Agriculture by Sector Chapter Summary Irish Agricultural production in 2019 was worth €8.01 billion counting for 7.7% of employment. Ireland is a net exporter of beef, dairy and sheep. Most farm product prices are seasonal (price changes with supply and demand at different times of year) Fluctuating world market prices can lead to unexpected price volatility at farm level. Ireland has a strong image of grass fed sustainable livestock product production with good traceability. Dairy farming has two main systems, spring creamery milk (85% of cows) and liquid. Milk quotas are no longer in place. o Ireland has a very good international reputation for quality food produced sustainably. o Creamery milk is low cost but it does result in seasonal prices and supply of milk for farmers and processors. o There are opportunities to expand milk production (sustainably) and to develop new ingredients or products and markets. Ireland is the fifth largest exporter of beef and the largest in Europe producing over 6 times what we eat ourselves. o This makes beef markets and marketing very important. There are five main beef conformation classes - E.U.R.O.P., and five main fat classes 1,2,3,4,5. The U and 4 classes have sub classes + = and – to allow for more detailed pricing for those classes. Main markets for beef are the UK and the EU. Ireland has an average flock size of over 100 ewes. Ireland is the sixth biggest EU sheep producer but the biggest exporter of sheep meat (35,000 tonnes). The UK and France accounted for 60% of Irish sheep exports. Mid Season, Early Lamb, Hill Sheep, and Store Lamb production are the most common systems. There are export opportunities outside of the EU. The Irish tillage sector produces 93% of Irelands cereal needs. Tillage farm incomes have been challenging due to price and weather issues. Tillage opportunities include high energy low protein feeds and the development of new products. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 2 44 How Plants Live Chapter 3 How Plants live In this chapter we will look at how plants live. Their living processes are affected by the conditions that they are exposed to (light, heat and moisture) and the food available to them. If you know what to growth to expect in a plant at the various stages it gives you a better chance of achieving what you want, which could be a good yield in grass or tillage crops. If it’s a weed that you don’t want on your farm knowing its growth pattern gives you a better chance of preventing or treating that weed. This is true for all stages of a plants life cycle from the start (germination) to the production of seed. When you have finished this chapter you will be able to: Learning Outcomes: On completion of this chapter you should be able to: Describe plant and animal cells, their parts, function and division Describe plant anatomy and its function of monocotyledon and dicotyledonous plants Discuss the basic living processes and life cycles of animals and plants. This chapter covers a brief introduction to the following topics: Plants cells Key plant growth and development processes o Plant Photosynthesis o Respiration o Water uptake and respiration Flowering and reproduction Plant life cycle Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 3 45 How Plants Live Section 3.1 Plant Cells It is useful to know a little about plant cells as plant cells are like little factories performing the various jobs a plant requires to thrive. The size and shape of plant cells can vary but there are some common features between cells. Cells have: Chloroplast (contains Chlorophyll) Mitochondrion Membrane Nucleus Vacuole 1. Cell membrane The cell membrane is the outer surface and as you might imagine important in protecting the cell and in allowing transport between cells, and bonding with other cells to give the plant structure. 2. Nucleus This part of the cell controls the cell function. 3. Vacuole This is a container that can store fluids (usually of benefit to the cell, but sometimes carrying waste). 4. Chloroplast – stores chlorophyll Chlorophyll can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas into food (sugar and oxygen), This is called photosynthesis. 5, Mitochondrion The mitochondrion produces the energy for the cell through respiration as outlined below. Principles of Agriculture Workbook – Chapter 3 46 How Plants Live How cells help a plant to grow: 1. Cell division – cells 2. Cell expansion – an increase in the size of cells 3. Cell differentiation – specialisation of cells. 1. Cells divide to create more cells Cell division takes place in parts of the plant called meristems (for the plant to grow longer or wider). The process of cell division is called mitosis. In this process: One cell – the parent cell – divides into two daughter cells. The two daughter cells are identical to the parent cell. 2. Cell expansion Away from the meristems, plants can also grow by increases in cell size. Cells can expand a little by stretching their cell walls by taking up water. However, because the plant cell wall is relatively rigid, to expand more than this, cells need to increase the size of their cell walls. They do this by new cellulose and other materials such as pectin. Certain plant hormones are also involved in this process. 3. Ce