Psychology 410: Sensory Processes & Perception - Week 1 Lecture Notes PDF

WEEK 1: Lecture outlines Reading: Goldstein Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO PERCEPTION 1. The importance of perception - Perception is crucial for survival 2. Sensation and perception are not the same 3. How many senses do we have? - The 5 senses - Proprioception - Nociception - Interoception - Thermoception - Chronoception - Sense of balance 4. Perception is rich and complex - Multimodal perception - Cross-modal transfer 5. Perception is experience-dependent 6. Why is it important to study perception? THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS 1. The perceptual process - Environmental stimulus - Attended stimulus - Stimulus on the receptors - Transduction - Processing - Perception - Recognition - Action - Knowledge 2. Top-down and bottom-up processing MEASURING PERCEPTION 1. Studying the perceptual process - The psychophysical level of analysis - The physiological level of analysis - The cognitive influence 2. Cross-talk between levels of analysis THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL APPROACH 1. Describing 2. Recognizing 3. Detecting - The absolute/minimal threshold - Method of limits - Method of adjustment - Method of constant stimuli - The difference threshold (DL) - Weber's law - Weber's fraction 4. Estimating magnitude - Above threshold perception - Response compression - Response expansion - Response linearity 5. Searching PSYC410_CH01-WK1_1_Intro_and_PerceptualProcess ====== The first slide features a plain white background with a black box that contains the details of a course titled "Psychology 410: Sensory Processes & Perception." The box indicates that the presentation is copyrighted by Daniela Corbetta, Ph.D., and includes a notice that this PowerPoint is intended solely for students enrolled in her class. The notice further warns against unauthorized use, including uploading or sharing the materials electronically, specifying consequences related to university conduct. The second slide introduces "UNIT 1: Introduction to Perception" against a visually striking backdrop of a bird's-eye view of a lush forest, emphasizing nature. The text overlay is prominent and structured, encouraging students to turn off their cell phones or to set them in airplane mode during the presentation. This reflects a common classroom etiquette to minimize distractions. The footer reiterates the copyright notice, emphasizing the importance of respecting intellectual property in an academic setting. Both slides are designed for educational purposes, providing critical information while enforcing academic integrity. The layouts are clean, focusing on readability with contrasting colors for text visibility against the background images. ``` Psychology 410 Sensory Processes & Perception UNIT 1 Introduction to Perception ``` ====== The content consists of two informational slides focused on the concepts of perception and sensation. The slides appear to be part of a presentation, with a clean layout featuring a white background and black text for clarity. Each slide is numbered, suggesting a sequential flow of topics. The first slide emphasizes "The Importance of Perception." It discusses how perception is crucial for human survival and invites the audience to consider the implications of being blind or deaf. It also mentions the role of senses and perception in connecting individuals to the outer world, elaborating on how they provide necessary information to identify environments and guide actions. The slide is attributed to Daniela Corbetta. The second slide addresses the relationship between sensation and perception, posing two critical questions: whether they are the same and which comes first. It defines sensation as a chemical process that begins at the level of receptors, specifically mentioning light detection. Perception is defined as a cognitive process that creates an experience of the environment, enabling individuals to act within it. Overall, the presentation succinctly conveys the foundational concepts of perception and sensation, highlighting their significance in understanding human interaction with the environment. ``` The Importance of Perception Crucial for our survival (e.g. imagine being blind or deaf) Senses and perception: – Our connection to the outer world – Provide needed information to identify the environment guide our actions Sensation & Perception Are they the same? Which comes first? Sensation is the chemical process that begins at the level of our receptors (i.e. light detection). Perception is a cognitive process that creates an experience of the environment and enables us to act within it (i.e., making sense of our environment). ``` ====== The visual consists of two slides from a presentation focusing on human senses. The slides are divided into sections, with a simple and clear layout. The first slide poses the question of how many senses humans possess, suggesting the commonly known five senses—vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. It emphasizes that while these senses gather information from the environment, there are more senses not covered by this list. The use of bullet points aids in clarity. The second slide elaborates on additional senses, specifically focusing on those related to body awareness and internal sensations. Each sense is accompanied by brief descriptions, explaining their functions: proprioception (awareness of body parts), nociception (pain perception), interoception (awareness of internal needs), thermoception (temperature sensing), chronoception (sense of time), and balance (vestibular system). This systematic presentation encourages understanding of both external and internal sensory mechanisms. ``` How many senses? 5? More? – Vision – Hearing – Touch – Smell – Taste These are the senses picking up information from the environment, but, we have more….. Other Senses Proprioception – Where our body parts are and what they are doing Nociception – Feeling of pain Interoception – Internal needs such as feeling of hunger and thirst Thermoception – Sensing temperature Chronoception – Sensing the passage of time Sense of balance (vestibular system) ``` ====== The content presented consists of two slides from a presentation that discusses the complexity and richness of perception. The slides are structured in a clear and organized manner, each with a distinct focus. The first slide, titled "Perception is Rich & Complex (1)", highlights the sophistication of each perceptual sense. It states that each sense can identify multiple dimensions of the same object, prompting questions about what can be detected by vision, hearing, and touch. The design is minimalist, featuring a simple text layout with a light background and dark text for easy readability. The overall tone indicates an educational context, likely aimed at students or individuals learning about sensory perception. The second slide, titled "Perception is Rich & Complex (2)", continues the theme of perception being multimodal and redundant. It discusses how sensory information is encoded through multiple senses, providing examples such as keys being seen, heard, and felt. It mentions that such multimodal input enhances the experience of a source. The slide also touches on the transfer of sensory information across different senses, noting that things identified with one sense can be recognized with another. Again, the slide maintains a simple layout and is designed to convey information efficiently. The slides are attributed to Daniela Corbetta, suggesting that she is the author or presenter of this material. ``` Perception is Rich & Complex (1) Each perceptual sense is very sophisticated – can identify many dimensions of a same object What dimensions can be detected by vision? by hearing? by touch? Perception is Rich & Complex (2) Perception is always multimodal (redundancy) – Sensory information is always encoded by multiple senses (e.g. keys can be seen, heard, and felt) – Such multimodal information provides enhanced experience about a source (TV - heard and seen) – Sensory information can also be transferred across senses (crossmodal transfer: Things identified with one sense can be recognized with another sense) ``` ====== The content consists of two slides from a presentation. The first slide focuses on the concept that perception is experience-dependent, highlighting how the structure and operation of the brain can change based on experience. It discusses the relationship between experience, motor and sensory systems, and how experiences can help organisms detect and recognize specific environmental features. Examples used include language development, learning, and video games. The slide presents the information in bullet points, suggesting a clear and concise delivery of ideas. The second slide addresses the importance of studying perception. It lists several reasons, including understanding perceptual complexity, identifying normal versus abnormal perception patterns, designing devices for restoring or correcting perception, and understanding the demands of specific activities like training athletes, radiologists, surgeons, and drivers. This slide also uses bullet points to present the information systematically. The background is plain, allowing the text to stand out clearly, and the slides are attributed to Daniela Corbetta. ``` Perception is Experience-Dependent Structure/operation of brain can be changed by experience Experience depends on our motor and sensory system Our experiences -- as we perceive and/or act -- tune or train our organism to detect and recognize specific features in the environment (e.g. language development/learning, video games) 9 Why is it Important to Study Perception? Understand perceptual complexity and how perception works Identify normal vs. abnormal patterns of perception Design devices to restore or correct perception (e.g. prescription glasses, hearing aids,…) Understand the perceptual demands of some specific activities (how to best train athletes, how to best train radiologist to read X-Rays, how to train surgeons, pilots, drivers, etc…) 10 ``` ====== The content is divided into two sections, each presenting information related to a psychology course titled "Psychology 410: Sensory Processes & Perception." The first section features a header with the course title and specifies that it is week one with a focus on "The Perceptual Process." Background imagery depicts a dense forest from an aerial view, reinforcing themes of natural sensory experiences. A footer notes the copyright information, indicating that the materials are authored by Dr. Denise Cerfetti and contain disclaimers about usage and distribution rights. The second section outlines the perceptual process itself, arranged in a circular flow diagram. Key components are labeled: - "Knowledge" - "Perception" - "Processing" - "Recognition" - "Action" - "Transduction" - "Stimulus on the receptors" - "Attended stimulus" - "Environmental stimulus," which is highlighted with a red box. The diagram emphasizes the interconnected nature of these concepts, indicating how the experience of sensory information is processed and recognized. A note beneath the diagram expresses the overwhelming nature of stimuli, suggesting that not all stimuli can be attended to at once. ``` Psychology 410 Sensory Processes & Perception WEEK 1 The Perceptual Process Please note, Denise Cerfetti, Ph.D., retains copyright of this PowerPoint and all of her instructional materials. This PowerPoint is solely intended for use in her course. It is prohibited to copy or distribute any part of this PowerPoint without her permission. Any misuse of this PowerPoint may be subject to disciplinary action in accordance with the Code of Conduct in the Human Resources Policy and Procedures. The Perceptual Process Knowledge → Perception → Recognition → Action Transduction ↔ Processing Stimulus on the receptors → Attended stimulus → Environmental stimulus Can be overwhelming – we can’t attend everything ``` ====== The visual depicts two separate sections of a presentation on environmental stimuli and the perceptual process, likely intended for educational purposes. In the first section labeled "Examples of environmental stimuli," there are four images arranged in a grid format. The top left image shows a congested street filled with numerous vehicles, likely in a city setting. Adjacent to it, on the top right, is a more serene scene of a tree-lined avenue with a pedestrian, suggesting a calm environment. Below these two, the third image showcases a lush green landscape with water flowing through a forested area, indicating nature's presence. The second section is titled "The Perceptual Process." It contains a flowchart illustrating the stages of perception and processing. The flowchart includes distinct elements such as "Knowledge," "Perception," "Processing," "Transduction," "Recognition," and "Action." The cycle indicates the movement through these stages, with a specific focus on "Attended stimulus," which is emphasized in a highlighted box, suggesting that it represents a critical aspect of the perceptual process. At the bottom of the chart, a descriptor states that the attended stimulus is "Usually something interesting, relevant, or significant." The overall aesthetic is academic, aimed at conveying information clearly and effectively, combining visual imagery with theoretical concepts in psychology. ``` Examples of environmental stimuli The Perceptual Process Knowledge Perception Processing Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus Recognition Action Usually something interesting, relevant, or significant ``` ====== The content consists of two slides that appear to present information on attended stimuli and the perceptual process. In the first slide, there are three images arranged in a grid format. The top two images depict busy environments—one shows a significant number of yellow vehicles, likely taxis, in a congested urban setting. This image is highlighted, with a red circle drawn around a particular area, drawing attention to a specific detail in the scene. The second image shows a less dense street populated with parked cars along the side, with another red circle indicating an area of interest. In the lower segment of the slide, the third image portrays a lush green environment featuring streams and dense vegetation. There are dotted lines leading through the foliage, likely intended to guide attention through the scene. This panel illustrates various examples of stimuli that can be attended to by observers. The second slide details the perceptual process in a circular flowchart format. It outlines the steps involved in perception, initiating with "Environmental stimulus," which leads to "Stimulus on the receptors," followed by "Attended stimulus," "Transduction," "Processing," "Perception," "Recognition," "Action," and ultimately returning to "Knowledge." Each step is interconnected, showing the fluidity of cognition. The slide also includes a diagrammatic representation of an eye, indicating that the retina is a network of light-sensitive receptors, emphasizing the biological aspect of how stimuli are perceived. The design is straightforward and functional, with clear labels and visual cues intended to facilitate understanding of complex psychological concepts related to perception and attention. ``` Example of attended stimuli The Perceptual Process Knowledge Perception Recognition Action Processing Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus Retina: 0.4mm thick network of light sensitive receptors and other neurons that are lining the inside of the eye ``` ====== The content presents two slides discussing concepts related to perception and the perceptual process. The first slide illustrates a silhouette of a person observing a representation of a human brain, which is depicted with blue hues and glowing elements. The brain is shown in a semi-transparent manner, highlighting the internal structures. This visual likely aims to symbolize the connection between external stimuli and the brain's processing capabilities. In the second slide, a circular diagram outlines the perceptual process. This diagram includes various stages: starting from "Stimulus on the receptors," moving to "Attended stimulus," "Processing," "Perception," "Recognition," and "Action," before culminating in "Environmental stimulus." An important concept, "Transduction," is highlighted, indicating that it involves the transformation of stimuli (e.g., light) into electrical signals by the retina. The diagram illustrates the cyclical nature of perception, showcasing how knowledge and recognition feed back into processing and perception. The background is predominantly white, which keeps the focus on the illustrations and text. The overall layout is straightforward and educational, suitable for conveying foundational concepts in psychology or neuroscience. ``` Stimulus on the receptors The Perceptual Process Knowledge Processing Perception Recognition Action Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus i.e. Light reaching the retina transformed into an electrical signal ``` ====== The visual consists of two main sections presented in a presentation format. The first section is titled "Transduction," featuring a silhouette of a person on the left side interacting with an illustration of a brain on the right. The brain illustration showcases different neural activity and appears to indicate processing information, highlighted by vibrant colors. Supplementary imagery appears in the corner, possibly depicting neural connections or synapse activity, reinforcing the theme of neurological transduction. The second section is titled "The Perceptual Process," which is displayed as a circular flowchart. This chart outlines a sequence of stages involved in perception, including "Transduction," "Stimulus on the receptors," "Attended stimulus," "Processing," "Knowledge," "Perception," "Recognition," "Action," and "Environmental stimulus." Each component illustrates the progression from an external stimulus to cognitive recognition and response. The chart emphasizes that electrical signals travel from neuron to neuron through various pathways in the brain, reflecting the complexity of the perceptual process. Overall, the components highlight the intricate relationship between stimuli, neural processes, and perception, emphasizing the importance of each stage in understanding how we perceive our environment. ``` Transduction The Perceptual Process Processing Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Knowledge Perception Recognition Action Environmental stimulus Electrical signals travel (propagate) from neurons to neurons following different routes throughout the brain. ``` ====== The content consists of two distinct sections related to neural processing and the perceptual process. The first section, titled "Neural Processing," features a visual representation of a human silhouette positioned in front of a stylized face displaying a brain. The brain is depicted in a vibrant color scheme, with highlights indicating areas of interest or activity. The silhouette appears to be interacting with or observing the brain, suggesting a focus on understanding consciousness or cognitive function. The second section, labeled "The Perceptual Process," contains a circular diagram illustrating the steps involved in perception. The elements of the diagram are interconnected and include stages such as "Transduction," "Stimulus on the receptors," "Attention stimulus," "Processing," "Perception," "Recognition," "Knowledge," and "Action." The circular layout implies a continuous cycle of perception, while the dimension of knowledge highlights the cognitive aspect of recognizing and interpreting sensory experiences. The phrase "Knowing that you see, touch, or hear" emphasizes the awareness and understanding required for perception. Overall, the combination of visuals and textual information serves to educate on the intricate relationship between neural activity and the processes involved in human perception. ``` 21 Neural Processing 22 The Perceptual Process Knowledge Perception Recognition Processing Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus Action Knowing that you see, touch, or hear ``` ====== The content comprises two main sections focused on the themes of perception and the perceptual process. In the first section titled "Perception," there is a visual illustration depicting a silhouette of a person, who seems to be facing forward, looking towards an abstract representation of a brain. The brain is highlighted in a blue and vivid color scheme, suggesting stimulation or activity, with lines radiating from it, representing neural connections or mental processes. The figure has a speech bubble saying, "Ah! I see something," indicating an awakening of awareness or recognition of something significant in their environment. The second section, titled "The Perceptual Process," presents a flowchart illustrating the steps involved in perception. The circle chart includes various elements: Knowledge, Perception, Recognition, Action, Processing, Transduction, Stimulus on the receptors, Attended stimulus, and Environmental stimulus. Arrows connect these elements in a cyclical manner, suggesting that perception is an ongoing process. The bottom of the chart includes the phrase, "Knowing what you see, touch, or hear," emphasizing the notion of awareness and understanding derived from sensory information. The overall design utilizes a blend of illustrative and textual elements to convey the complexities and stages involved in the perceptual process, underscoring the importance of recognition and the dynamic nature of perception. ``` Perception Ah! I see something The Perceptual Process Knowledge Processing Perception Recognition Action Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus Knowing what you see, touch, or hear ``` ====== The visual presentation contains two main sections focused on concepts related to recognition and the perceptual process. In the first section titled "Recognition," there is an illustration of a silhouette of a person standing to the left, depicted in black against a light background. This figure appears to be gazing towards the right where a colored diagram of a human head illustrates a brain. The brain graphic includes colorful pathways or connections, suggesting neural activity. A speech bubble emanates from the head, with the text "Ah! I see a child. It’s Mary!" This signifies the moment of recognition of a specific individual, emphasizing the cognitive aspect of identifying someone familiar based on visual perception. The second section is labeled "The Perceptual Process" and features a circular flowchart. The chart maps out various stages: starting from "Stimulus on the receptors," it moves to "Transduction," followed by "Processing," "Attended stimulus," then "Perception," and "Recognition" before reaching "Action" at the center. An arrow indicates a return to "Knowledge," indicating a cyclical dynamic. The flowchart highlights the different stages involved in perception and how they contribute to recognition and subsequent actions. The overall look is structured and educational, aimed at explaining how perception works in a continuous manner. The background is simple, allowing the diagrams and text to stand out clearly against it, ensuring the viewer focuses on the concepts presented without visual distractions. ``` Recognition Ah! I see a child! It’s Mary! The Perceptual Process Which in turn involves a change in perception. The perceptual process is a continuous, ongoing dynamic process. Knowledge Processing Perception Recognition Action Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus ``` ====== The content consists of two main sections or slides related to the perceptual process, emphasizing the stages involved in how individuals interpret and react to stimuli in their environment. The first section illustrates a scenario with three key stages: Perception, Recognition, and Action. It includes a visual representation of a person walking, where the individual first perceives an object ("I see something"), recognizes it as an oak tree ("It’s an oak tree"), and finally decides to take action ("Let’s have a closer look"). Arrows connect these stages, illustrating the flow from perception to action, with a focus on how recognition is integral to determining one’s response. The second section provides a more detailed conceptual diagram of the perceptual process, featuring a cyclical model. It incorporates the elements of Knowledge, Perception, Processing, Recognition, and Action, indicating how these components interact. The model shows the relationship between stimuli and perception, detailing the progression from "Stimulus on the receptors" to "Attended stimulus," and further emphasizing how environmental stimuli influence perception. This analysis highlights the significance of individual experience and memory in shaping perception, suggesting that prior knowledge influences how we recognize and respond to environmental cues. ``` Walk to Mary… or a tree Perception “I see something” Recognition “It’s an oak tree” Action “Let’s have a closer look” Figure 1.4 p. 27 The Perceptual Process Knowledge Perception Processing Recognition Action Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus Linked to previous experience and memory → can influence the way individuals perceive the environment ``` ====== The visual content showcases two simple, line-drawn figures set against a plain background, with each one representing a different subject. The first figure depicts a stylized mouse. The mouse is rounded, with a prominent body shape characterized by a smoothly curved outline. Its features include two large rounded ears at the top of its head and a simple face with eyes and a whisker-like structure. The tail curls lightly around the body, giving it a whimsical appearance. The combination of the body, ears, and tail suggests a friendly and non-threatening animal. The use of minimalistic lines emphasizes the form rather than detailed features. In contrast, the second figure depicts a stylized human profile. The head is oversized with exaggerated features that include a round face, a long nose, and large eyes that create an expression of curiosity or surprise. The hairline appears rounded, contributing to the whimsical quality of the figure. The drawing style maintains simplicity, focusing on the shape and placement of facial components rather than realistic details. Both illustrations reflect a playful, cartoonish aesthetic, utilizing basic lines and shapes to convey character while leaving much to viewers' interpretation. The figures are devoid of any specific background elements, placing all focus on the characters themselves. ``` Adapted from "The Role of Frequency in Developing Perceptual Sets," by B. R. Boguski and D. A. Alamprese, 1971, Canadian Journal of Psychology, 25, 205-211. Copyright © 1981 by the Canadian Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission. ``` ====== The visual content consists of two main sections, each featuring distinct illustrations and text. The first section (31) displays a simple line drawing of a face in profile. The drawing presents a cartoonish character with exaggerated features: a rounded bald head, large round eye, and pronounced nose. The mouth is depicted in a smiling manner, and there is a noticeable ear visible behind the head. The drawing is minimalistic, primarily using black outlines on a white background, drawing attention to the facial expressions. Below this drawing is a citation that specifies the source of the illustration, crediting authors B. R. Bogartz and D. A. Alangari from a paper published in the Canadian Journal of Psychology in 1971. The second section (32) is labeled "Man-Girl illusion" and features a collection of empty squares. On the left side, there is a similar cartoon face to the one described in the first section, but this time the character has hair and a frown. The face is set against a soft pink background, while the adjacent boxes are colored in a light blue hue. The overall layout suggests that the empty squares may be used for demonstrating a visual illusion related to interpreting gender from the facial features presented. ``` Adapted from "The Role of Frequency in Developing Perceptual Sets," by B. R. Bogartz and D. A. Alangari, 1971, Canadian Journal of Psychology, 35, 265-271. Copyright © 1971 by the Canadian Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission. Man-Girl illusion ``` ====== The visual consists of two slides, likely from a presentation or educational material. The first slide presents an illustration that can be interpreted in multiple ways. It focuses on a drawing that can appear to depict either a young girl or an old woman based on the viewer’s perspective. The image emphasizes the ambiguity of perception and how different viewpoints can lead to different interpretations. The girl is characterized by features such as a bun in her hair and a slight smile, while the woman is depicted with features like a wide-brimmed hat and an older, more defined facial structure. This duality highlights the theme of perceptual psychology. The second slide contains a block of text discussing a concept related to knowledge and perception. It cites "rat-man" or "man-girl" demonstrations, suggesting that these experiments illustrate how recent experiences or acquired knowledge can create expectations that shape what one anticipates seeing. This notion touches upon the broader idea that prior experiences significantly influence perception and interpretation of visual stimuli. ``` Young girl- Old woman Knowledge The rat-man or man-girl demonstrations show how recently acquired knowledge can set up an expectation for what is going to be seen. In that sense, prior experience can influence perception. ``` ====== The visual consists of two main sections that outline aspects of perception and the processes the brain undergoes when detecting stimuli and recognizing them. The first section illustrates "The Perceptual Process" in a flowchart format. It includes various elements depicted in boxes and arrows connecting them in a sequence. At the top, "Perception" flows into "Recognition," which then proceeds to "Action." Below this, a figure of a head shows the flow of information from the environment to the individual's inner cognitive processes. The main components detailed in this section are as follows: 1. Stimulus in the environment: Referring to external factors influencing perception. 2. Light is reflected and focused: Stating how light interacts with the stimulus. 3. Receptor processes: Involving the initial sensory reception by receptors in the eyes. 4. Neural processing: The transformation of sensory input into neural impulses. 5. Knowledge: Referencing prior knowledge that influences perception. The second section discusses the "Steps in the sensation and perception of a stimulus," further dissecting the process of how stimuli are recognized. A visual representation of a brain diagram is placed prominently, illustrating where perception and recognition occur. Key points listed include: 1. Reception: Odorant molecules attach to receptors. 2. Transduction: Receptors convert the energy of a chemical reaction into action potentials. 3. Coding: Explaining how the pattern of nerve impulses represents stimuli meaningfully. 4. An example relating to olfactory sensation specifically, accompanied by a drawing of a flower to represent the scent of flowers. At the bottom, a question prompts readers to differentiate between perception and recognition. Overall, the two segments effectively outline the complex processes involved in sensory perception, emphasizing both visual and olfactory examples. ``` The Perceptual Process Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Figure 1-1 p.5 35 Steps in the sensation and perception of a stimulus Perception/recognition Ah… the scent of flowers 1. Reception. Stimulus molecules attach to receptors. 2. Transduction. Receptors convert the energy of a chemical reaction into action potentials. 3. Coding: The spatial and temporal pattern of nerve impulses represents the stimulus in a meaningful way. → Processing Environmental stimulus (air) Odorant molecules What part is: perception? recognition? Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 36 ``` ====== The visual piece presents two diagrams that compare and contrast top-down and bottom-up processing within the realm of perception. In the first diagram, which features a human head silhouette, the focus is on bottom-up processing. A flow of information is depicted moving from the environment, marked by "Environmental stimulus (air)" and "Odorant molecules," to the sensory receptors, leading to transduction into neural signals. It illustrates the perception of a flower's scent, portraying the flow of stimuli into cognition. The key steps include the reception of stimulus by receptors and the subsequent coding of the signals into meaningful information. The second diagram delves into the top-down processing aspect. A circular model represents how knowledge and perception interplay. Each step includes "Processing," "Recognition," "Action," and feedback loops connecting them back to the experience of stimuli. The diagram highlights how prior knowledge shapes perception and informs how a stimulus is recognized and acted upon. This circular relationship illustrates the reciprocal nature of processing—in which what is perceived can also affect how stimuli are interpreted and acted on. Both diagrams emphasize the distinction and interaction between direct sensory input and contextual knowledge in forming perceptions. ``` Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing 1. Reception Stimulus molecules attach to receptors. 2. Transduction: Receptors convert the energy of a chemical reaction into action potentials. 3. Coding: The spatial and temporal pattern of nerve impulses represents the stimulus in a meaningful way. -> Processing Perception Ah... the scent of flowers Bottom-Up Processing Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus (air) Odorant molecules 37 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing Knowledge Perception Top-Down Processing Processing Recognition Action Bottom-Up Transduction Stimulus on the receptors Attended stimulus Environmental stimulus 38 ``` ====== The visual composition consists of two sections. The top section features a graphical illustration demonstrating the concept of perception. It portrays a human head in profile view, with a detailed illustration of the brain. The brain is labeled as containing "Existing knowledge (top down)," while visual data is presented as incoming information from the environment, represented by a butterfly camouflaged against a tree trunk, signifying "Incoming data (bottom up)." This visual aids in understanding how existing knowledge influences perception in conjunction with new sensory input. The bottom section contains a textual explanation of the concepts of "Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing." It asserts that perception consists of these two types of processing and highlights that processing amalgamates new, incoming data with previously acquired knowledge and experiences. Arrows indicate the relationship between the two concepts, reinforcing their interconnectedness. The overall design is characterized by clarity and educational intent, suitable for conveying complex cognitive processing concepts to an academic audience. ``` Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing Perception is always made of bottom-up and top-down processing. Processing always combines new, incoming information with previous knowledge and experience ``` ====== The visual presentation consists of two slides related to the study of the perceptual process. The first slide serves as an introductory overview with a title displayed prominently at the center. The title reads "Studying the Perceptual Process: A quick overview," suggesting that it provides foundational insights into the topic. The background is simple, maintaining focus on the text without any distracting graphics or images. The second slide expands on the introductory theme, detailing the mechanisms involved in conscious perception. It lists key concepts related to perception, recognition, and action. The slide features bullet points, indicating a structured format likely meant for easy reading during a presentation. Next to these points is a circular diagram emphasizing various aspects of the perceptual process, depicting a flow from stimuli to recognized action. Key topics include: - A brief mention of the importance of understanding the mechanisms that drive perception, recognition, and action. - Three approaches to studying the perceptual process, further categorized into psychophysical analysis, physiological analysis, and cognitive influence. The diagram visually represents these components, showcasing how they interconnect within the perceptual process. ``` Studying the Perceptual Process A quick overview Studying the Perceptual Process - Understanding the mechanisms responsible for perception, recognition, and action (conscious perception) - Can be approached 3 ways: - Psychophysical level of analysis - Physiological level of analysis - Cognitive influence ``` ====== The content consists of two distinct sections that focus on different levels of analysis related to perception. The first section is labeled "Psychophysical level of analysis" and emphasizes the relationship between a stimulus and its perception. It references Gustav Fechner and mentions the use of a quantitative method called psychophysics, posing questions about thresholds for perception in various sensory modalities, such as sound and light. A visual element suggests a circular representation relating to knowledge, processing, perception, recognition, and action, with additional references to stimuli and the environment. The second section, titled "Physiological level of analysis," shifts attention to the relationship between a stimulus and its physiological responses, as well as the connection between physiology and perception. This section introduces Anna S, presumably a reference to a study or researcher, and talks about neurophysiological methods used to record neuronal activity, including EEG and fMRI. It also poses a question about which parts of the brain are active when attending to a stimulus and when responses to stimuli occur. Similar to the first section, there is a visual element with a circular representation connecting knowledge, perception, recognition, and action, along with mentions of stimuli. The background of both sections is plain, emphasizing the text and diagrams, while the use of bullet points and structured questions indicates an educational or presentation purpose. ``` Psychophysical level of analysis - Focuses on the relationship between a stimulus and its perception - Use a quantitative method called psychophysics (Gustav Fechner, 1860) psych => perception physics => stimulus What is our threshold for sound perception? Color distinction? Light perception? Sensitivity to textures? Physiological level of analysis - Focuses on the relationship between a stimulus and its physiology and the relationship between a physiology and perception Anna S - Use neurophysiological method to record the activity of a single or group of neurons in the cortex EEG (ElectroEncephaloGraph) fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance) Insertion of electrodes in neurons (animal research) What part(s) of the brain become(s) active when attending a stimulus? When do cell respond to the appearance of a stimulus? ``` ====== The visual consists of two slides, presumably from a presentation focusing on cognitive influence in perception analysis, likely used in an academic or research setting. The first slide, titled "Cognitive Influence," elaborates on how prior knowledge, memories, and expectations shape the interactions among stimulus, physiology, and perception. The central diagram illustrates a cyclical model with terms such as "Processing," "Recognition," "Action," and "Perception," indicating a structured relationship among these cognitive components. A red box emphasizes the term "Knowledge" in this cycle, showcasing its pivotal role in influencing perception. Underneath the diagram, the content mentions experiments involving rats, termed the "Rat-Man example," pointing to habituation experiments and investigations comparing different populations based on their histories with specific stimuli. Two rhetorical questions are posed, encouraging engagement with the topic: whether prior exposure to darkness increases sensitivity to light, and if musicians possess an enhanced capacity for pitch perception. The second slide, titled "Cross-talk between levels of analysis," discusses the interconnectedness of analytic dimensions in understanding perception. Each level of analysis offers distinct insights into perceptual processes and tends to overlap, which is referred to as “cross-talk.” An example of this integration is given through brain scans that validate behavioral observations. The slide concludes with the assertion that comprehensive understanding of perception necessitates the integration of all analytical levels. ``` Cognitive Influence Focuses on how knowledge, memories, and expectations affect each of the three relationships between stimulus, physiology, and perception Manipulate the perceptual history/familiarity to a stimulus before presenting the test stimulus. Rat-Man example Habituation experiments Compare populations with different histories Does prior exposure to darkness improve your sensitivity to light? Do musicians have better pitch perception? Cross-talk between levels of analysis Each level of analysis – provides different information about the perceptual process – Complement/overlap one another (cross-talk) (e.g., brain scans often confirm what was observed at the behavioral level) To fully understand perception, all levels must be integrated ``` PSYC410_CH01-WK1_2_MeasuringPerception ====== The visual content includes two slides from a PowerPoint presentation titled "Psychology 410: Sensory Processes & Perception." The first slide presents a title page for the course, featuring the course number and title prominently at the top. Below it, a copyright notice indicates that the PowerPoint is authored by Daniela Corbetta, Ph.D. The text specifies that the material is intended for students enrolled in her class and outlines restrictions against sharing or distributing the content to third parties. Additionally, it provides a warning about potential disciplinary actions for unauthorized use. The second slide continues the theme of the course and introduces "UNIT 1: Measuring Perception: An Overview." It requests attendees to turn off cell phones or set them to airplane mode, likely as a courtesy during the presentation. This slide maintains the same course title at the top and includes relevant academic information arranged in a structured manner. The background features a bird's-eye view of green trees, creating a calm and nature-oriented aesthetic. Together, the slides serve as an introduction to a psychology course focused on sensory processes, while emphasizing the importance of copyright and classroom etiquette. ``` Psychology 410 Sensory Processes & Perception UNIT 1 Measuring Perception: An Overview ``` ====== The content presented consists of two slides from a presentation on the perceptual process. The first slide introduces the study of perception, recognition, and action. It emphasizes that understanding these mechanisms can be approached in three ways: psychophysical, physiological, and cognitive analysis. Accompanying this text is an illustrative diagram that visually represents the connection among knowledge, perception, processing, recognition, action, and environmental stimuli, indicating how these elements interact within the perceptual framework. The second slide dives deeper into the psychophysical level of analysis, detailing its focus on the relationship between a stimulus and its perception. It introduces psychophysics as a quantitative method pioneered by Gustav Fechner in 1860. This slide also includes another visual representation, connecting various aspects such as processing, transduction, and the distinction between personal (proximal) and environmental (distal) stimuli. Additionally, it poses questions about thresholds in sound perception, color distinction, light perception, and sensitivity to textures, stimulating inquiry into how these factors contribute to perception. The background of both slides is clean and minimalist, making the text and diagrams the focal points. The use of bullet points and illustrations aids in the audience's understanding of complex concepts associated with perceptual processes. ``` Studying the Perceptual Process Understanding the mechanisms responsible for perception, recognition, and action (conscious perception) Can be approached 3 ways: – Psychophysical level of analysis – Physiological level of analysis – Cognitive influence Psychophysical level of analysis Focuses on the relationship between a stimulus and its perception Use a quantitative method called psychophysics (Gustav Fechner, 1860) psycho => perception physics => stimulus What is our threshold for sound perception? Color distinction? Light perception? Sensitivity to textures? ``` ====== The content features two sections focusing on psychological analysis, with a clear separation between the "Physiological level of analysis" and "Cognitive Influence." Each section contains bullet points explaining their respective themes and relationships between different elements such as stimulus, physiology, and perception. In the first section, titled "Physiological level of analysis," the focus is on the relationship between a stimulus and its physiological response, as well as the link between physiology and perception. There are references to methods like EEG (ElectroEncephalography), fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), and the insertion of electrodes in neurons, indicating a scientific approach to studying brain activity. There is also a thought-provoking question regarding brain activity in response to stimuli. The second section, "Cognitive Influence," shifts attention to how knowledge, memories, and expectations affect the interactions between stimulus, physiology, and perception. It discusses manipulating perceptual history and familiarity with a stimulus to observe changes in responses. An illustrative example involving "Rat-Man," which implies research on habituation and behavioral responses among different populations, is mentioned at the bottom. Both sections include diagrams that visually represent the relationships among knowledge, perception, processing, and action, enhancing the understanding of these concepts. ``` Physiological level of analysis - Focuses on the relationship between a stimulus and its physiology and the relationship between a physiology and perception - Use neurophysiological method to record the activity of a single or group of neurons in the cortex EEG (ElectroEncephalography) fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Insertion of electrodes in neurons (animal research) What part(s) of the brain become(s) active when attending a stimulus? When do cell respond to the appearance of a stimulus? Cognitive Influence - Focuses on how knowledge, memories, and expectations affect each of the three relationships between stimulus, physiology, and perception - Manipulate the perceptual history/familiarity to a stimulus before presenting the test stimulus. Rat-Man example Habituation experiments Compare populations with different histories Does prior exposure to darkness improve your sensitivity to light? Do musicians have better pitch perception? ``` ====== The content features two slides from a presentation, likely related to psychology or perception studies. The first slide, attributed to Daniela Corbetta, discusses the concept of "Cross-talk between levels of analysis" in the study of perception. The slide emphasizes that different levels of analysis contribute unique information about the perceptual process. It explains that these levels can complement or overlap one another, illustrating this with an example of how brain studies can validate behavioral observations. The key takeaway is that understanding perception requires integrating information across all levels of analysis. The second slide indicates the start of a course or lecture titled "Measuring Perception: The Psychophysical Approach" under the course Psychology 410, covering sensory processes and perception. It includes a directive to turn off cell phones or switch to airplane mode, suggesting a classroom or academic context. The slide also contains a disclaimer noting that the materials are under copyright and should not be distributed without permission. The background imagery for the second slide presents what appears to be an overhead view of a forest, offering a vibrant, natural backdrop that complements the academic content. ``` Cross-talk between levels of analysis - Each level of analysis - provides different information about the perceptual process - Complement/overlap one another (cross-talk) (e.g., brain studies often confirm what was observed at the behavioral level) - To fully understand perception, all levels must be integrated Psychology 410 Sensory Processes & Perception WEEK 1 Measuring Perception: The Psychophysical Approach Please, Turn off Cell Phones or Set on Airplane Mode Please note: Daniela Corbetta, Ph.D., retains copyright of this recorded PowerPoint and all of her materialized materials. The recording is strictly prohibited from being shared or distributed in any form without her permission. This recording can only be viewed by current students who are enrolled in this university-situated workshop or lecture under the Code of Conduct in the Human Resources Policy and Procedures. ``` ====== The content comprises two slides from a presentation regarding the psychophysical approach, which is a method of studying the relationship between stimuli and perception. The first slide introduces the psychophysical approach, highlighting its foundation in psychophysics, attributed to Gustav Fechner from 1860. It illustrates a flow from "Stimulus" to "Perception" and mentions key concepts like "Minimal Threshold" and "Absolute Threshold." A diagram is included, which depicts various components of perception, such as knowledge, processing, and the attended stimulus, along with an indication of the relation between stimulus and perception. The second slide outlines the psychophysical methods. It indicates that the most fundamental methods include describing or recognizing what is perceived, which falls under phenomenological and categorical approaches. Additionally, it lists quantitative methods involving detecting minimal thresholds, perceiving magnitudes, and searching. The slides are visually structured with bullet points and headings, emphasizing the key points for easier comprehension and focus during a presentation. ``` The Psychophysical Approach Based on a quantitative method called psychophysics (Gustav Fechner, 1860) psycho => perception physics => stimulus Stim → Perception Minimal Threshold Absolute Threshold Different methods to capture this relation © Daniella Corbetta The Psychophysical Methods Most basic are: – Describing or Recognizing what we perceive (phenomenological, categorical approaches) Quantitative methods – Detecting minimal threshold – Perceiving magnitude – Searching © Daniella Corbetta ``` ====== The content consists of two separate slides, each displaying different aspects of psychophysics, particularly focusing on the work of Gustav Fechner. The first slide presents an overview of the psychophysical approach attributed to Fechner, who was a German scientist and philosopher, active in the 19th century. The slide includes a black-and-white photograph of Fechner, who is depicted with gray hair and glasses, suggesting wisdom and a historical persona. Below the photograph, key points highlight the significance of his contributions, particularly his seminal work titled "Elements of Psychophysics," published in 1860. This work is noted for its efforts to accurately measure the relationship between stimuli and their perception, indicating the foundational nature of classical psychophysical methods. The second slide delves into quantitative measures related to the detection threshold of stimuli. Two pivotal concepts are outlined: the absolute threshold and the difference threshold. The absolute threshold is defined as the smallest amount of stimulus energy necessary to detect a stimulus. The difference threshold, on the other hand, refers to the smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect. This slide uses bullet points to concisely present these definitions, emphasizing the focus on detecting and measuring sensory experiences. Overall, these slides serve to convey fundamental principles of psychophysics and highlight Fechner’s lasting influence on the field of psychology and the study of sensory perception. ``` The Psychophysical Approach Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) German scientist-philosopher Elements of Psychophysics (1860). How to measure with accuracy the relationship between a stimulus and its perception (classical psychophysical methods) Quantitative measure Detection threshold (of stimulus) * The absolute threshold → smallest amount of stimulus energy necessary to detect a stimulus * The difference threshold → smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect ``` ====== The content is structured as a presentation slide, organized into sections that discuss the concept of "The Absolute Threshold" based on Gustav Fechner's research. The text outlines three primary methods used to measure the absolute threshold, which is the minimum detectable stimulus level. In the upper section, there are three key methods described in bullet points: 1. Method of limits: This method involves presenting stimuli with increasing or decreasing intensity. 2. Method of adjustment: This involves the participant adjusting the stimulus intensity in a continuous manner. It is noted as the "FASTEST / LEAST ACCURATE" technique. 3. Method of constant stimuli: In this method, a predefined set of stimuli at different intensities is presented in a random order. This approach is characterized as the "LONGEST TO ADMINISTER / MOST ACCURATE." These details are followed by the author's name, Daniela Corbetta, and a copyright notice, indicating the source of this information. The lower section illustrates a visual representation of measuring the finest line width a person can perceive. There are two diagrams on either side of a series of repeated lines. The observer is asked to respond with "Yes" or "No" regarding their ability to perceive the width of the lines. An individual with long hair, facing away, is depicted below the diagrams, suggesting the participant in the experiment. The text indicates that this procedure should be repeated several times, demonstrating the application of the "METHOD OF LIMITS." ``` The Absolute Threshold: How is it done? (Gustav Fechner) - Method of limits - Present stimuli of increasing or decreasing intensity. - Method of adjustment (Appendix A) - Participant adjusts stimulus intensity in a continuous manner FASTEST / LEAST ACCURATE - Method of constant stimuli (Appendix A) - Predefined set of stimuli of different intensities presented in a random order LONGEST TO ADMINISTER / MOST ACCURATE Measuring the finest line width a person can perceive Yes Yes No Repeat several times METHOD OF LIMITS © Cengage Learning 2014 ``` ====== The visual consists of two main sections, likely from a presentation or educational material focused on methods used in sensory or perceptual tests. The first section presents the "Method of Limits." It features a table organized by "Intensity" with values ranging from 95 to 103. Each intensity level is tracked across several trials (marked 1 to 8) to determine whether participants perceived a stimulus (marked as 'Y' for yes and 'N' for no). The crossover values are noted at the bottom, with a specific mention of thresholds calculated from these values, indicating a mean of crossovers equal to 98.5. This table visually depicts how the perception threshold varies as the intensity of the stimulus changes. The second section is focused on "Measuring the finest line width a person can perceive." It illustrates a graphical representation of multiple lines or stripes that likely serve to test visual acuity. Below the depicted lines is a "SLIDER" mechanism implying some form of interactive element that allows measurement adjustment. An individual is shown from the back, appearing to manipulate the slider to determine the finest line width they can discern. A footnote references "METHOD OF ADJUSTMENTS (Appendix A)," suggesting additional material or guidance related to this method. ``` Method of Limits Intensity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 103 Y Y Y Y Y N N N 102 Y Y Y Y Y N N N 101 Y Y Y Y N N N N 100 Y Y Y N N N N N 99 Y Y N N N N N N 98 Y N N N N N N N 97 N N N N N N N N 96 N N N N N N N N Crossover values → 98.5 98.5 97.5 99.5 98.5 98.5 97.5 Threshold = Mean of crossovers = 98.5 Measuring the finest line width a person can perceive SLIDER METHOD OF ADJUSTMENTS (Appendix A) ``` ====== The first slide presents a visual and text-based inquiry into the perception of line widths. At the top, there is a pattern of vertical lines arranged within a circular boundary, resembling stripes of varying widths that appear to provide a contrast in thickness. Below this pattern, an illustration shows the back of a person's head, whose hair is tied back, indicating that they are likely engaged in an observation or task related to the visual stimulus above. The person is facing the striped circle, prompting the viewer to think about the question posed: "Which has the finest lines?" This inquiry relates to measuring perception limits among individuals. The slide concludes with a note about the "Method of Constant Stimuli" and refers to an appendix labeled "Appendix A," suggesting that there are detailed procedural notes available for reference or further reading. The second slide transitions to a focus on practical application and experimentation, prompting the audience to illustrate methods through demonstrations, specifically noted as "Demos 3, 5, & 6." This implies an interactive component, encouraging engagement with the material presented in the previous slide. ``` Measuring the finest line width a person can perceive Which has the finest lines? METHOD OF CONSTANT STIMULI (Appendix A) Illustrate these methods with DEMOs Demos 3, 5, & 6 ``` ====== The content consists of two slides related to the psychological concept known as the "difference threshold," attributed to Ernst Weber, a notable figure who lived from 1795 to 1878. The first slide introduces the concept of the difference threshold, explaining it as the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that are almost identical. This is termed the Difference Limen (DL), originating from the German language. Accompanying this text is a black-and-white illustration of a man who resembles the appearance of a historical figure, possibly Ernst Weber himself. Additionally, there are two geometric shapes, likely cubes, displayed at the bottom of the slide, which visually represent the concept of comparing stimuli. The second slide expands on the difference threshold by discussing Weber's law. It indicates that the difference limen (DL) increases as the magnitude of the stimulus increases. Below this text, there is a comparison of two geometric shapes, further illustrating the principle. The law is presented using a mathematical formula derived from Fechner's work: DL/S = K, where S represents the stimulus and K is a constant. The layout of both slides is clear and educational, with a mix of textual explanation and visual aids that enhance understanding. ``` The Difference Threshold (Ernst Weber, 1795-1878) Called DL from German Difference Limen (Appendix B) – Based on comparisons between two almost identical stimuli: smallest detectable difference. The Difference Threshold (Weber's law) Weber: DL increases with the magnitude of the stimulus DL < Weber’s law / Weber fraction (stated by Fechner) DL/S=K (where S is the stimulus and K is a constant) ``` ====== The content presents a visual aid potentially used for educational purposes, specifically related to Weber's Law, a principle in psychology that relates to the perception of differences in stimuli. In the upper section, there are two illustrations of a person holding two trays. The left tray displays a weight of 100 grams, while the right tray shows 200 grams. The individual is depicted in a neutral stance, wearing a headband and looking at the trays. Each side includes bold text indicating the weight and the respective difference in weight that needs to be noted for the demonstration of Weber's Law. The left side notes: "100 g = 5 g," indicating that the difference of 5 grams is just noticeable when added to 100 grams. It then presents the ratio: "5/100 = 0.05," demonstrating the constant k value that applies to this scenario. On the right side's illustration, it states: "200 g = 10 g," which indicates a difference of 10 grams is necessary for perceiving a noticeable change at this heavier weight. It follows up with the ratio: "10/200 = 0.05," which maintains the same k value as the previous example. The bottom section features a title emphasizing the intention to demonstrate Weber's Law through a practical example or demonstration, denoted as "DEMO 9 – just noticeable differences." The background is blank, drawing focus to the titles and illustrations. ``` Constant stimuli data and Weber's law (DL/S=K) 100 g = 5 g 5/100 = 0.05 200 g = 10 g 10/200 = 0.05 Illustrate the Weber's Law with DEMO Demo 9 – just noticeable differences ``` ====== The content consists of two slides that appear to be part of a presentation on the psychophysical approach in sensory perception. The first slide highlights a conceptual diagram related to how stimuli are processed into perception. It features a circular diagram emphasizing various stages in the perceptual process, labeled as "Knowledge," "Processing," "Perception," "Recognition," "Action," "Attended stimulus," "Stimulus of the receptors," and "Environmental stimulus." The terms "Stim → Perception" with references to "Maximal" and "Minimal Threshold" suggest a focus on how stimuli translate into perceptual experiences, emphasizing thresholds for detection. The overall design is clean, with a clear distinction between sections. The second slide emphasizes a more quantitative aspect of the psychophysical approach. It lists three methods: "Detecting minimal threshold," "Perceiving magnitude," and "Searching." The word "Perceiving magnitude" is highlighted in red, indicating its importance in this context. This suggests a focus on measuring the perceptual experience in a more objective manner. Overall, the slides present a structured overview of the psychophysical approach to understanding sensory perception, highlighting both the conceptual framework and quantitative methods. ``` The Psychophysical Approach Stim → Perception Maximal Minimal Threshold The Psychophysical Approach More quantitative methods – Detecting minimal threshold – Perceiving magnitude – Searching ``` ====== The content displays two slides from a presentation, possibly focusing on psychology or sensory perception. The first slide titled "Above Threshold Perception" discusses the "Method of magnitude estimation," attributed to S.S. Stevens, including an appendix reference dated 1957. It outlines the process where participants are asked to assign numerical values that represent increasing or decreasing magnitudes to stimuli of varying intensity (scaling). The results of these estimations are subsequently graphed, producing specific functions based on the type of stimulus. A note mentions a "DEMO on VISUAL SCALING (#12)," which suggests an interactive or practical demonstration related to the concepts being discussed. The second slide, labeled "Response Linearity (Perfect scaling)," presents a graph titled "Magnitude Estimate" against "Stimulus Intensity." The graph is designed to show a linear relationship, where the line rises consistently, illustrating that perceptual magnitude increases in a linear fashion concerning intensity. A note highlights that "Most of our perceptual experiences would fit linearity," stressing a commonality in how perception aligns with stimulus strength in various instances. Both slides use a clean, professional font, potentially aimed at an academic audience. ``` Above Threshold Perception Method of magnitude estimation (S.S. Stevens, 1957, Appendix C) – Participants assign a number of increasing or decreasing magnitude to stimuli of different intensities (scaling) – Results plotted on graphs create certain functions depending on the stimulus DEMO on VISUAL SCALING (# 12) Response Linearity (Perfect scaling) Magnitude Estimate + | | | | | | | | | | - +--------------------------- Stimulus Intensity Perceptual magnitude increases linearly with intensity ``` ====== The visual consists of two graphs positioned one above the other, each accompanied by headings that explain the nature of the corresponding graphical representation regarding perceptual responses to stimuli. The first graph illustrates "Response Compression," showing how the perceptual magnitude (y-axis) changes in relation to stimulus intensity (x-axis). The curve gently increases, indicating that as stimulus intensity rises (whether from brightness or sound), the magnitude of perception does not grow as quickly as the intensity itself. This suggests that at certain levels of intensity, our perception plateaus relative to the actual increase in stimulus intensity. The second graph, titled "Response Expansion," depicts a different relationship between stimulus intensity and perceptual magnitude. In this case, the curve initially remains low and then rises sharply, demonstrating that as the intensity of stimuli (like electric shock or pain) increases, the perceptual magnitude escalates even more dramatically. This indicates a nonlinear relationship where at lower intensities, the response is muted, but it grows significantly as the intensity heightens. Each graph uses different visual markers to denote the variables of brightness, sound, electric shock, and pain, helping viewers to understand distinct cognitive responses to varying stimuli. The background appears plain, emphasizing the graphs, which are clear and well-structured for comprehension. ``` Response compression Magnitude Estimate - Stimulus Intensity + Perceptual magnitude does not increase as rapidly as intensity Response expansion Magnitude Estimate - Stimulus Intensity + Perceptual magnitude increases more than intensity ``` ====== The visuals consist of two slides from a presentation, likely focusing on psychophysics and power functions. The first slide presents a graph illustrating the relationship between "Log Stimulus Intensity" and "Log Magnitude Estimate." The graph has a vertical axis labeled "Log Magnitude Estimate," indicating perceived magnitude, and a horizontal axis labeled "Log Stimulus Intensity," indicating the intensity of the stimulus. There is a curve showing different slopes related to power functions. Details of the graph include: - A linear line labeled "slope = 1," which represents a neutral relationship where the magnitude estimate equals the stimulus intensity. - An expanding curve presented in a dashed line for which the "slope > 1" is noted, with an exponent approximately equal to 3.5. - A compressing curve with "slope < 1," noted to have an exponent of around 0.6. - There's a reference to Stevens's Power Law, expressed as \( P = K S^n \), where \( P \) is perceived magnitude, \( S \) is stimulus intensity, \( K \) is a constant, and \( n \) is the power value indicating the slope itself. The second slide is about the psychophysical approach, outlining several core concepts: - Describing - Recognizing - Detecting (related to absolute/difference thresholds) - Estimating magnitude (related to above-threshold perception) - Searching, which includes identifying a target stimulus hidden among other elements, along with a note to measure reaction times (RT). The overall theme suggests an exploration of how humans perceive and interpret various stimuli through measurement and analysis. ``` Power functions Steven's Power Law → P=KS^n + Log Stimulus Intensity | | | slope = 1 | _____________ | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / |_________________/ | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | slope < 1 | (exponent n ≈ 0.6) | | | slope > 1 | (exponent n ≈ 3.5) | | | | | | | | | | | + - Log Magnitude Estimate + The Psychophysical Approach Describing Recognizing Detecting (absolute/difference threshold) Estimating magnitude (above threshold perception) Searching (e.g. identifying a target stimulus hidden among a number of other elements) - Measure reaction times (RT) ``` Book Chapter C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to!Perception CHAPTER CONTENTS Why Read This Book? The Perceptual Process But What About “Sensation”? Distal and Proximal Stimuli (Steps 1 and 2) Receptor Processes (Step 3) Neural Processing (Step 4) Behavioral Responses (Steps 5–7) Knowledge Studying the Perceptual Process The Two “Stimulus” Relationships (A and B) The Physiology–Perception Relationship (C) Cognitive In#uences on Perception Measuring Perception Gustav Fechner Introduces Methods to!Measure Thresholds Five Questions About the Perceptual World SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: Why Is the Di!erence Between Physical and Perceptual Important? THINK ABOUT IT Some Questions We Will Consider: Why should you read this book? (p. 4) What is the sequence of steps from looking at a stimulus like a tree to perceiving the tree? (p. 5) What is the difference between perceiving something and recognizing it? (p. 8) How do perceptual psychologists go about measuring the varied ways that we perceive the environment. (p. 13) Imagine that you have been given the following hypothetical science project. Project: Design a device that can locate, describe, and identify all objects in the environment, including their distance from the device and their relationships to each other. In addition, make the device capable of traveling from one point to another, avoiding obstacles along the!way. Extra credit: Make the device capable of having conscious experience, such as what people experience when they look out at a scene. Warning: This project, should you decide to accept it, is extremely dif"cult. It has not yet been solved by the best computer scientists, even though they have access to the world’s most powerful computers. Hint: Humans and animals have solved these problems in a number of elegant ways. They use (1) two spheri- cal sensors called “eyes,” which contain a light-sensitive chemical, to sense light; (2) two detectors on the sides of the head, called “ears,” which are "tted with tiny vibrat- ing hairs to sense pressure changes in the air; (3)!small pressure detectors of various shapes imbedded!under the skin to sense stimuli on the skin; and (4)!two types of chemical detectors to detect gases that are inhaled and solids and liquids that are ingested. Additional note: Designing the detectors is just the "rst!step in creating the system. An information process- ing system is also needed. In the case of the human, this information processing system is a “computer” called the brain, with 100 billion active units and interconnections so complex that they have still not been completely deciphered. Although the detectors are an important part of the project, the design of the computer is crucial, be- cause the information that is picked up by the detectors needs to be analyzed. Note that the operation of the hu- man system is still not completely understood and that the best scienti"c minds in the world have made little progress with the extra credit part of the problem. Focus on the main problem "rst, and leave conscious experience until later. 3 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.The “science project” just described is about perception— conscious experience that results from stimulation of the senses. Our goal in this book is to understand how humans and animals perceive, starting with the detectors—the eyes, ears, skin receptors, and receptors in the nose and mouth— and then moving on to the computer—the brain. We want to understand how we sense things in the environment and in- teract with them. The paradox we face is that although we still don’t understand perception, perceiving is something that oc- curs almost effortlessly. In most situations, we simply open our eyes and see what is around us, listen and hear sounds, eat and taste, without expending any particular effort. Because of the ease with which we perceive, many people see perception as something that “just happens” and don’t see the feats achieved by our senses as complex or amazing. “After all,” the skeptic might say, “for vision, a picture of the envi- ronment is focused on the back of my eye, and that picture provides all the information my brain needs to duplicate the environment in my consciousness.” But the idea that percep- tion is not very complex is exactly what misled computer sci- entists in the 1950s and 1960s to propose that it would take only about a decade or so to create “perceiving machines” that could negotiate the environment with humanlike ease. That prediction, made half a century ago, has yet to come true, even though a computer defeated the world chess champion in 1997 and defeated two Jeopardy! champions in 2010. From a com- puter’s point of view, perceiving a scene is more dif"cult than playing world championship chess or accessing vast amounts of knowledge to answer quiz questions. In this chapter, we will consider a few practical reasons for studying perception, how perception occurs in a sequence of steps, and how to measure perception. Why Read This Book? The most obvious answer to the question “Why read this book?” is that it is required reading for a course you are taking. Thus, it is probably an important thing to do if you want to get a good grade. But beyond that, there are a number of other reasons for reading this book. For one thing, it will provide you with information that may be helpful in other courses and perhaps even your future career. If you plan to go to gradu- ate school to become a researcher or teacher in perception or a related area, this book will provide you with a solid background to build on. In fact, many of the research studies you will read about were carried out by researchers who read earlier editions of this book when they were undergraduates. The material in this book is also relevant to future stud- ies in medicine or related "elds, because much of our discus- sion is about how the body operates. Medical applications that depend on an understanding of perception include devices to restore perception to people who have lost vision or hearing and treatments for pain. Other applications include robotic vehicles that can "nd their way through unfamiliar environ- ments, face recognition systems that can identify people as 4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to!Perception they pass through airport security, speech recognition systems that can understand what someone is saying, and highway signs that are visible to drivers under a variety of conditions. But reasons to study perception extend beyond the pos- sibility of useful applications. Studying perception can help you become more aware of the nature of your own perceptual experiences. Many of the everyday experiences that you take for granted—such as tasting food, looking at a painting in a museum, or listening to someone talking—can be appreciated at a deeper level by considering questions such as “Why do I lose my sense of taste when I have a cold?” “How do artists cre- ate an impression of depth in a picture?” and “Why does an unfamiliar language sound as if it is one continuous stream of sound, without breaks between words?” This book will not only answer these questions but will answer other questions that you may not have thought of, such as “Why don’t I see colors at dusk?” and “How come the scene around me doesn’t appear to move as I walk through it?” Thus, even if you aren’t planning to become a physician or a robotic vehicle designer, you will come away from reading this book with a heightened appreciation of both the complexity and the beauty of the mechanisms respon- sible for your perceptual experiences, and perhaps even with an enhanced awareness of the world around you. Because perception is something you experience con- stantly, knowing about how it works is interesting in its own right. To appreciate why, consider what you are experiencing right now. If you touch the page of this book, or look out at what’s around you, you might get the feeling that you are per- ceiving exactly what is “out there” in the environment. After all, touching this page puts you in direct contact with it, and it seems likely that what you are seeing is what is actually there. But one of the things you will learn as you study perception is that everything you see, hear, taste, feel, or smell is the result of the activity in your nervous system and your knowledge gained from past experience. Think about what this means. There are things out there that you want to see, hear, taste, smell, and feel. But the only way to achieve this is by activating sensory receptors in your body designed to respond to light energy, sound energy, chemical stimuli, and pressure on the skin. When you run your "ngers over the pages of this book, you feel the page and its texture because the pressure and movement are activating small receptors just below the skin. Thus, whatever you are feeling depends on the activation of these receptors. If the receptors weren’t there, you would feel nothing, or if they had different properties, you might feel something different from what you feel now. This idea that perception depends on the properties of the sensory receptors is one of the themes of this book. A few years ago, I received an email from a student (not one of my own, but from another university) who was using an earlier edition of this book.1 In her email, “Jenny” made a 1Who is “I”? In various places in the book you will see "rst-person references such as this one (“I received an email”) or others, like “a student in my class,” or “I tell my students,” or “I had an interesting experience.” Because this book has two authors, you may wonder who I or my is. The answer is that, unless otherwise noted, it is author B. G., because most of the "rst-person references in this edition are carried over from the 9th edition, which was written by B. G. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.number of comments about the book, but the one that struck me as being particularly relevant to the question “Why read this book?” is the following: “By reading your book, I got to know the fascinating processes that take place every second in my brain, that are doing things I don’t even think about.” Your reasons for reading this book may turn out to be totally differ- ent from Jenny’s, but hopefully you will "nd out some things that will be useful, or fascinating, or both. The Perceptual Process Perception happens at the end of what can be described, with apologies to the Beatles, as a long and winding road (McCartney, 1970). This road begins outside of you, with stim- uli in the environment—trees, buildings, birds chirping, smells in the air—and ends with the behavioral responses of perceiv- ing, recognizing, and taking action. We picture this journey from stimuli to responses by the seven steps in Figure! 1.1, called the perceptual process. The process begins with a stim- ulus in the environment (a tree in this example) and ends with the conscious experiences of perceiving the tree, recognizing the tree, and taking action with respect to the tree. Because this process is involved in everything we will be describing in this book, it is important to note that Figure 1.1 is a simpli"ed version of what happens. First, many things happen within each “box.” For example, “neural processing,” involves understanding not only how cells called neurons work, but how they interact with each other and how they op- erate within different areas of the brain. Another reason we say the series of boxes in Figure 1.1 is simpli"ed is that steps in the perceptual process do not always unfold in a one-follows-the- other order. For example, research has shown that perception (“I see something”) and recognition (That’s a tree”) may not al- ways happen one after another, but could happen at the same time, or even in reverse order (Gibson & Peterson, 1994). And when perception or recognition leads to action (“Let’s have a closer look at the tree”), that action could change perception and recognition (“Looking closer shows that what I thought was an oak tree turns out to be a maple tree”). This is why there are reverse arrows between perception, recognition, and action. In addition, there is an arrow from “action” back to the stimu- lus. This turns the perceptual process into a “cycle” in which taking action, for example, walking toward the tree, changes the observer’s view of the tree. Even though the process is simpli"ed, Figure 1.1 provides a good way to think about how perception occurs and intro- duces some important principles that will guide our discus- sion of perception throughout this book. In the "rst part of this chapter, we will brie#y describe each stage of the process; in the second part, we will consider ways of measuring the relationship between stimuli and perception. Perception Recognition Action 5 6 7 Neural processing Knowledge 4 Receptor processes Light is reflected and focused Stimulus in the environment 3 2 1 Figure 1.1 The perceptual process. These seven steps, plus “knowledge” inside the person’s brain, summarize the major events that occur between the time a person looks at the stimulus in the environment (the tree in this example) and perceives the tree, recognizes it, and takes action toward it. Figures 1.3–1.6 describe the steps in the perceptual process in more detail. But What About “Sensation”? Before we begin describing the stages of the perceptual pro- cess, let’s consider something that may have occurred to you: Why is Figure 1.1 called the perceptual process, when the title of this book is Sensation and Perception? To answer this ques- tion, let’s consider the terms sensation and perception. When a distinction is made between sensation and perception, sensation is often identi"ed as involving simple “elementary” processes that occur right at the beginning of a sensory system, as when light stimulates receptors in the eye. In contrast, perception is identi"ed with complex processes that involve higher-order mechanisms such as interpretation and memory that involve activity in the brain. It is therefore often stated, especially in introductory psychology textbooks, that sensation involves de- tecting elementary properties of a stimulus (Carlson, 2010), and perception involves the higher brain functions involved in interpreting events and objects (Myers, 2004). Keeping this distinction in mind, let’s consider the dis- plays in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2a is extremely simple—a single dot. Let’s for the moment assume that this simplicity means that there is no interpretation or higher-order processes, so sensation is involved. Looking at Figure 1.2b, with three dots, we might now think that we are dealing with perception, be- cause we interpret the three dots as creating a triangle. Going even further, we can say that Figure 1.2c, which is made up of many dots, is a “house.” Surely this must be perception because it involves many dots and our past experience with houses. But let’s return to Figure 1.2a, which we called a dot. As it turns out, even a stimulus this simple can be seen in more than one The Perceptual Process 5 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.(a) (b) (c) Figure 1.2 (a) One dot, (b) a triangle, (c) a house. What do these stimuli tell us about sensations and perceptions? See text for discussion. Perhaps the main reason not to use the term sensation is that, with the exception of papers on the history of perception research (Gilchrist, 2012), the term sensation appears only rarely in modern research papers (for example, papers on the sense of taste occasionally refer to taste sensations), whereas the term perception is extremely common. Despite the fact that introduc- tory psychology books may distinguish between sensation and perception, modern perception researchers don’t make this distinction. So why is this book called Sensation and Perception? Blame history. Sensation was discussed in the early history of percep- tual psychology, and courses and textbooks followed suit by including sensation in their titles. But while researchers eventu- ally stopped using the term sensation, the titles of the courses and books remained the same. So sensations are historically important (we will discuss this brie#y in Chapter 5), but as far as we are concerned, everything that involves understanding how we experience the world through our senses comes under the heading of perception. With that bit of terminology out of the way, we are now ready to consider Steps 1 and 2 of the perceptual process, by accompanying someone who is observ- ing a tree in a "eld. way. Is this a black dot on a white background or a hole in a piece of white paper? Now that interpretation is involved, does our experience with Figure 1.2a become perception? This example illustrates that deciding what is sensation and what is perception is not always obvious. As we will see in this book, there are experiences that depend heavily on processes that occur right at the beginning of a sensory system, in the sensory receptors or nearby, and there are other experiences that depend on interpretation and past experiences, using in- formation stored in the brain. But this book takes the posi- tion that calling some processes sensation and others perception doesn’t add anything to our understanding of how our sensory experiences are created, so the term perception is used almost exclusively throughout this book. Distal and Proximal Stimuli (Steps 1 and 2) There are stimuli within the body that produce internal pain and enable us to sense the positions of our body and limbs. But for the purposes of this discussion, we will focus on stimuli that exist “out there” in the environment, and we will consider what happens to stimuli in the "rst two steps of the perceptual process in which stimuli in the environment reach receptors in the eye (Figure 1.3). We begin with the tree that the person is observing, which we call the distal stimulus (Step!1). It is called distal because it is “distant”—out there in the environment. The person’s perception of the tree is based not on the tree getting into his eye (ouch!), but on light re#ected from the tree and reaching Figure 1.3 Steps 1 and 2 of the perceptual process. Step!1: Information about the tree (the distal stimulus) is carried by light. Step 2: The light is transformed when it is re"ected from the tree, when it travels through the atmosphere, and when it is focused by the eye’s optical system. The result is the proximal stimulus, the image of the tree on the retina, which is a representation of the tree. Receptor processes Light is reflected and focused Distal stimulus 3 2 1 Lens Cornea Light Atmosphere Focusing Image on retina (proximal stimulus) 2 Proximal Stimulus Is Created 1 Distal Stimulus 6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to!Perception Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.the visual receptors (Step 2). The re#ection of light from the tree introduces one of the central principles of perception, the principle of transformation, which states that stimuli and re- sponses created by stimuli are transformed, or changed, between the distal stimulus and perception. The "rst transformation occurs when light hits the tree and is then re#ected from the tree to the person’s eyes. The na- ture of the re#ected light depends on properties of the light en- ergy hitting the tree (is it the midday sun, light on an overcast day, or a spotlight illuminating the tree from below?), proper- ties of the tree (its textures, shape, the fraction of light hitting it that it re#ects), and properties of the atmosphere through which the light is transmitted (is the air clear, dusty, or foggy?). When this re#ected light enters the eye, it is transformed as it is focused by the eye’s optical system, which is the cornea at the front of the eye and the lens directly behind it. If these optics are working properly, they form a sharp image of the tree on the receptors of the person’s retina, a 0.4-mm-thick net- work of nerve cells that covers the back of the eye and that contains the receptors for vision. This image on the retina is the proximal stimulus, so called because it is “in proximity” to the receptors (Step 2). If the eye’s optics are not working properly, this proximal stimulus—the image that reaches the retina—may be blurred. The fact that an image of the tree is focused on the retina introduces another principle of perception, the principle of representation, which states that everything a person perceives is based not on direct contact with stimuli but on representations of stimuli that are formed on the receptors and the resulting activity in the person’s nervous system. The distinction between the distal stimulus (Step 1) and the proximal stimulus (Step 2) illustrates both transformation and representation. The distal stimulus (the tree) is transformed into the proximal stimulus, and this image represents the tree in the person’s eyes. But this transformation from “tree” to “image of the tree on the retina” is just the "rst in a series of transformations. The next transformation occurs within the receptors at the back of the eye. Receptor Processes (Step 3) Sensory receptors are cells specialized to respond to environ- mental energy, with each sensory system’s receptors special- ized to respond to a speci"c type of energy. Visual receptors respond to light, auditory receptors to pressure changes in the air, touch receptors to pressure transmitted through the skin, and smell and taste receptors to chemicals entering the nose and mouth. When the visual receptors that line the back of the eye receive the light re#ected from the tree, they do two things: (1) They transform environmental energy into electrical en- ergy; and (2) they shape perception by the way they respond to different properties of stimuli (Figure 1.4). Visual receptors transform light energy into electrical energy because they contain a light-sensitive chemical called visual pigment, which reacts to light. The transformation of one form of energy (light energy in this example) to an- other form (electrical energy) is called transduction. Another Receptor processes Light is reflected and focused Distal stimulus 3 2 1 Rod and cone receptors (described in Chapter 2) line the back of the eye. They change light energy into electrical energy and influence what we perceive. Rod Cone 3 Receptor Processes Figure 1.4 Step 3 of the perceptual process. Receptor processes include transduction (the transformation of light energy into electrical energy) and the shaping of perception by the properties of visual pigments in the receptor’s outer segments. The end result is an electrical representation of the tree. example of transduction occurs when you touch the “with- drawal” button or icon on an ATM. The pressure exerted by your "nger is transduced into electrical energy, which causes a device that uses mechanical energy to dispense your money out of the machine. Transduction by the visual pigments is crucial for per- ception, because without it information about the represen- tation of the tree formed on the retina would not reach the brain and perception would not occur. In addition, the visual pigments shape perception in two ways: (1) The ability to see dim light depends on having a high concentration of light- sensitive pigment in the receptors; and (2) there are different types of pigments, which respond best to light in different parts of the visible spectrum. Some pigments respond better to light in the blue-green part of the spectrum; others respond better to the yellow-red part of the spectrum. We will describe both transduction and how the properties of the different pigments in#uence perception in Chapter 2. Neural Processing (Step 4) Once transduction occurs, the tree becomes represented by electrical signals in thousands of visual receptors. But what happens to these signals? As we will see in Chapter 2, they travel through a vast interconnected network of neurons that (1) transmit signals from the receptors, through the retina, to the brain, and then within the brain; and (2) change (or process) these signals as they are transmitted. These changes occur because of interactions between neurons as the signal travels from the receptors to the brain. Because of this processing, some signals become reduced or are prevented from getting through, and others are ampli"ed so they arrive at the brain with added strength. This processing then continues as signals travel to various places in the brain. The Perceptual Process 7 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.Perception Occipital lobe (vision) Parietal lobe (skin senses) Frontal lobe 5 Neural processing 4 Figure 1.5 Step 4 of the perceptual process. Neural processing involves interactions between the electrical signals traveling in networks of neurons early in the system, in the retina; later, on the pathway to!the brain; and #nally, within the brain. Temporal lobe (hearing) Neural processing takes place in the interconnected circuits of neurons like the retina (above) and in much more complex circuits within the brain. Each sense sends signals to different areas of the brain. 4 Neural Processing Receptor processes 3 The changes in these signals that occur as they are trans- mitted through this maze of neurons is called neural processing (Figure 1.5). Processing will be described in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3. For now, the main point is that process- ing continues the process of transformation that began when looking at the tree created an image of the tree inside the eye, which was then changed into electrical signals in the visual re- ceptors. A similar process occurs for other senses as well. For example, sound energy (pressure change in the air) is trans- formed into electrical signals inside the ear and is transmitted out of the ear along the auditory nerve, then through a series of structures on the way to the brain. Electrical signals from each sense arrive at the primary receiving area for that sense in the cerebral cortex of the brain (as shown in Figure 1.5). The cerebral cortex is a 2-mm-thick layer that contains the machinery for creating perceptions, as well as other functions, such as language, memory, and thinking. T

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