Epithelium: Types, Characteristics, and Functions PDF

EPITHELIUM Epithelial tissues are composed of closely aggregated polyhedral cells adhering strongly to one another and to a thin layer of ECM, forming cellular sheets that line the cavities of organs and cover the body surface. CHARACTERISTICS covers or lines structures absorption and f...

EPITHELIUM Epithelial tissues are composed of closely aggregated polyhedral cells adhering strongly to one another and to a thin layer of ECM, forming cellular sheets that line the cavities of organs and cover the body surface. CHARACTERISTICS covers or lines structures absorption and filtration soitis usually adjacenta - · surface transport of substances compact cell assemblies basement membrane lack of vascularity //// polar orientation - one side facing lumen/free space and the other connected to another tissue very little extracellular space apical modifications different origins (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm) from germ layer ↓ b tracks heart ↓ ↓ degestive trades = blood vessels lymphatics pulmonary - body surface - coelomics spaces & - - # TYPES SIMPLE SQUAMOUS blood vessels, pulmonary alveolus, gills lymphatic vessels , active transport by pinocytosis, secretion, facilitates movements of viscera - SIMPLE CUBOIDAL ductsa secretory parts of glands, ovary, thyroid tubules of. Kidney covering, secretion protection , absorption · :%% SIMPLE COLUMNAR ⑮I 1.1.1.1 most of digestive tract, female reproductive tract protection, lubrication, secretion, absorption ·. · transportation PSEUDOSTRATIFIED columnar trachea, bronchi, nasal passages , epididymys protection, secretion, cilia-mediated transport of particles trapped in mucus out of the air passages , absorption · not all alls exposed to surface combinen ils · ALL CELLS ↑ OUCH THE BASEMENT MEMBRANE STRATIFIED COLUMNAR =SQUAMOUS: 1. KERATENIZED - epidermis, protection, prevents water loss , lining general body surface , buccal cavity 2. NON-KERATENIZED - mouth, larynx, esophagus, vagina, protection, secretion, > prevents water loss # E - 1 S layer flaking with cells dead = 2 - - - - - - - · · - = NO NUCLEUS - · H ~  umbrella/dome-shaped S cells TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM - stratified ↳ -ass · structures of the urinary tract ----- these cells are specialized to protect underlying tissues from the hypertonic and potentially cytotoxic effects of urine ENDOTHELIUM simple squamous orcolmnce EPITHELIUM L lines inner surface of vascular structures · relaxed state of urinary tract-cells shopes MESOTHELIUM from cuboidal to colu- simple squamous mar + umbrella cells lines outside surface of many organs in abdominal and thoracic cavities brausana piersiona · stretched state apical - cells become flattened , closer to - BASEMENT MEMBRANE squamous a semipermeable filter for substances reaching epithelial cells from below anchors epithelial tissue to adjacent tissue provides physical support collagen type IV · consists of two layers: · laminin thin and brave basal lamina · fibroconectin - reticular lamina. proteoglycans · glucoprotein (nic Persea can · CELLULAR ATTACHMENTS minimum macula adherens - desmosome, hemidesmosomes 4 zonula adherens - microfilaments - provides points linking the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells zonula occludes, tight junctions - form a seal between adjacent e g in digetive tract.. or blood-brain barrier nexus, gap junctions (koneksony) - protein is called conexines which , form nexus DESMOSOMES - provide points of strong intermediate filament coupling between adjacent cells, strengthening the tissue HEMIDESMOSOMES - anchor cells of the epithelium to the basement membrane; anchors cytoskeleton to the basal lamina Allow direct transfer of small molecules and ions from one cell to another. COMMUNICATION  SPECIAL SURFACE STRUCTURES apical ends of cuboidal, columnar and pseudostratified epithelial cells 1. MICROVILLI (striated border, brush border) - absorptive intestinal epithelium 2. STEREOCILIA - epididymis 3. CILIA - respiratory system (trachea, bronchi) 4. KINOCILIA - sensory structures e. inner g. ear 1 MICROVILLI they increase cell surface that’s why they are found in organs where epithelium plays a primary role in absorption they are relatively stable # supported by actin microfilament network referred to as brush border or striated border. - 3 CILIA active movement they often beat in a coordinated fashion they assist in movement of material e.g. in respiratory tract, oviduct, uterus more more the S Ovum muchs , germs and other foreign particles up , toward mouth where they can be coughed or sneezed out (andB) AXONEME-I doublets and two [ Em central microtubules ↳ Complexes with axonemal dynein bound to one microtubule in each doublet extend as “arms” toward a microtubule of the next doublet. With energy from ATP dynein-powered sliding of adjacent doublets relative to each other bends the axoneme and a rapid series of these sliding movements produces the beating motion of the cilium. · SENSORY EPITHELIUM taste buds olfactory epithelium (smell) gustatory hearing sense of balance GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM SECRETION TYPES: MEROCRINE APOCRINE HOLOCRINE · i- sweat glands = glands · ↳ - sebaceous glands mammary Chair) In apocrine - vesicles are surrounded by the same membrane as cell. In helocrine - hole cells are released (they detach from basement membrane). > EXOCRINE remain connected with the surface epithelium, the connection forming the tubular ducts lined with epithelium that deliver the secreted material where it is used cells: secretory cells and myoepithelial cells shrink - they and push the substance out ENDOCRINE lose the connection to their original epithelium and therefore lack ducts sinusoidal capillaries adjacent to endocrine cells absorb their secreted hormone products for transport in blood to target cells throughout the body DEVELOPMENT OF GLANDS # -  Wymień w puntach wszystkie charakterystyczne cechy budowy of transitional epithelium. · shatified epithelium of small cells basement single layer basal very thin · ono membrane then to the they get closer opical they low columnar · as are and then cuboidal · on the top there are located large umbrella cells , which have specific protective functions cells of transitional epithelim their change shope · can as the tract shetches urimary Z jakich warstw i elementów histologicznych zbudowana jest w pełnie rozwinięta basement membrane? Basement membrane of two basal lamina is composed layers I consists of Lamina densa and lamina lucida) and reticular lamina. Basic components are type IV collages, laminin , hepotran sulfate , entactin , fibroconectin glycoprotein (vioogen) proteoglycans (perlecan , Wymień w punktach wszystkie charakterystyczne cechy budowy nabłonka wielorzędowego. Gdzie w tym nabłonku gromadzą się komórki macierzyste? · two or more layers of cells · can be keratenized or non-kenetenized stratified squamous cells can't change their shope · stem cells to the basement at the present close membrane · - are bottom · stratifide cuboidal and columner also exist but are rare Wymień elementy tworzące mikrokosmki. MICROVILLI" - static O · activ filament are the most basic and encial elements myosin I connecting anchoring activ to membrane · · fimbrinrillin cross-linking activ formin actin capping · · membrane CILIA-active · central microtubules · microtubule doublets around · to microtubules dynein arms are attached · nexin connectin doublets de e · membrane  CONNECTIVE TISSUE Cells forming connective tissues come from mesenchymal cells, which come from mesoderm; they “specialise” into other cells. mesoderm mesenchymal alls ⑧ HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM EPITHELIUM ? 1. vessels are present 2. contains extensive ECM extracellular matrix * - ground substance MAJOR ROLE: - protein fiber component connects and holds other tissues together heat regulation storage defence protection repair mediation of exchange of nutrients and waste * EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX - composed of two non0cellular biological materials - the protein fiber component and ground - substance FIBERS OF ECM: 1. collagen fibers - most common fibers in connective tissue proper long, straight, unbranched strong and flexible resist force in one direction procollagen collagen , molecules = fibrils fibers bundles Collagen is synthesised from precursors molecules - procollagen. Then collagen molecules form large chains - fibrils, which are further organised into fibers that form bundles. TYPES OF COLLAGEN FIBERS; shara utascina sciegna wiezadta Chrastha wohnists I - provides resistance to tension - dermis of skin, tendon, ligament, dentin, fibrocartilage hyaline cicilo salliste Urazhi midaukres one II - provides resistance to pressure - cartilage, vitreous body of the eye, intervertebral discs piodowa shore are III - fetal skin, smooth muscle, blood vessels, found in reticular fibers, stromal elements of cellular organs structure gliowenom IV - all basal and external laminae, muscle cells, neural glia TozyshC filtration barrier V - placenta, fetal tissue, skin, bone 2. elastic fibers - composed of elastin blaszki sprezyste often organised into lamellar sheets - e.g. walls of arteries thin, branched and wavy return to original state after stretching 3. reticular fibers - composed of collagen type III and thinner than collagen fibers present in organ stroma - forming supporting framework resist force in many directions  GROUND SUBSTANCE OF ECM - aqueous gel of glycoproteins and proteoglycans, fills the space between cellular and fiber elements of the tissue LOOSE C T DENSE C T.... more ground less ground · · substance substance · less Libers · more fibers ections much rER · * pa (ACTIVE) yolgi apparatus CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE: The finbrocyte can be - - microenvironmentally stimulated to return to a more metabolically active state and become fi nbroblastic in appearance, but not necessarily to the extent that it was originally 1. FIBROBLASTS AND FIBROCYTES mostly u (STATIC) - produce: collagen, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, elastic fiber proteins &som, - 2. HISTIOCYTES - MACROPHGES defferentiatea in bone marrow ↳ formed from monoblasts/monocytes they pass into the connective tissue from blood where mature to they macrophages ① phagocytosis production of cytokines and defensis crucial for antimicrobial membrane 3. SOME LYMPHOCYTES immune reaction peptides granules - learnin 4. MAST CELLS bigger than basophil (they also contein HISTAMINE - produce: heparin, histamine, cytokines, ATP, proteolytic enzymes crucial immunological system in especially allergic reactions I ⑧nudeus-and - 5. PLASMA CELLS formed from B lymphocytes membrane specific nucleus production of immunoglobulins I positioned close abundant RER, ribosomes and Golgi apparatus to the side - 6. ADIOPSE WHITE/YELLOW BROWN ⑧ D 00 p fat storage lenergy reservoir thermogenesis · · 000 thermal isolation lotsof mito- % · · filling emply chondria I · spaces · newborns and · cytokine secretion hibernating animals · formed from myoblasts adultsfollowina in · HOW DOES WHITE/YELLOW ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE LOOK LIKE UNDER LIGHT MICROSCOPE: little fibers little amount of ground substance ⑳ cells are compressed organelles pushed to the cellular membrane nucleus is elongated HOW DOES BROWN ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE LOOK LIKE UNDER LIGHT MICROSCOPE: little fibers ⑳ little amount of ground substance round nucleus in the center compressed cells lots of mitochondria (not visible under light microscope) many vessles (they need to produce heat so they need a lot of energy so they need lots of oxygen) ↳ CONNECTIVE TISSUE types 1. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE organs stroma, laminate propria tunica mucosa, tunica serousa 2. DENSE CONNECTIVE regular tendon, ligament irregular > nar of really see range reticular layer of skin, organ capsules, nerve sheaths Kollagen 3. SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUE: reticular connective tissue - reticulin and collagen III, adipose tissue cartilage bone blood wina 4. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE - type of the tissue found in a developing embroyo and in the umbilical cord  Narysuj schemat komórki tłuszczowej odpowiadającej za termoregulację i komórki wytwarzającej heparynę. same with histamine ·I ⑳ HEPARINE NOT CONNECTIVE Tissue TERMOREGULATION basophills mast brown adipose cells mee heparine and histamine Czym różni się fibrocyt od fibroblastu? lysosomes O membrane "manydroplets small ⑳ lipid ⑩ fibrocyte fibroblast & small large · · · static , inactive · active , secrates extracellular matrix acidophilic cytoplasm basophilic cytoplasm · · elongated ovoid nucleus small nucleus large · · , · spindle shape · irregular shape MUSCLE TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE: skeletal muscle tissue cardiac muscle tissue smooth muscle tissue WHAT MAKES UP A MUSCLE Sarcoplasm, sacroclemma, sarcoplasmatic reticulum, sarcosomes (mitochondria). plasma Membrane ~ a durin COMMON PROPERTIES OF ALL TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES: excitability - plasma membranes change tissue’s electrical state (depolarisation) dependence on nervous system especially skeletal muscles (voluntary motion), smooth and cardiac muscles to a lesser extent (they usually respond to other stimuli (from the blood, hormones or local stimuli) · * SKELETAL MUSCLES voluntary movement · long, cylindrical - prazikowame striated a peripheral placement of nuclei multi-nucleated arranged in series of bundles energy SATELLITE CELLS - they play a crucial role in muscle fiber maintenance, repair, and remodelling. STRIATIONS - present where myosin (thick filaments) and actin (thin filaments) overlap within sarcomeres. SARCOMERES - basic contractile units of muscles. - Zdisc - - - - FUNCTIONS: sarcomere contraction- causing movement and also stopping it stumer holding body upright in any position thanks to constant small contractions prevents excess movement of the bones and joints, maintaining skeletal stability and preventing damage or deformation of skeletal structures movement of substance located at the openings of internal tracts voluntary control of specific functions - swallowing, urination, defecation protection of internal organs contribution to heat generation (shivering or intense bursts of movement) - muscle contraction requires energy, when ATP is broken down heat is produced STRUCTURE: Each skeletal muscle consists of various integrated tissues, including skeletal muscle fibers, blood vessels, nerve fibers and connective tissue (3 layers of it). epimysium - surrounds entire muscle Ibundle perimysium - thinner layer that surrounds each fascicle endomysium - surrounds each muscle fiber  1 1. EPIMYSIUM 2. MUSCLE 3. PERIMYSIUM 4. MUSCLE FASCILE (bundle. ENDOMYSIUM 5 6. MUSCLE FIBER 7. MYOFIBRIL 8. SARCOMERE 9. ACTIN & MYOSIN 7 -. Ca2 + tropomin -tropomyosina # CONTRACTION: ⑦ Calt binds to tropomin causing tropomyosin out of its d move blocking position. Myosin forms cross bridges to activ. Powered by ATP hydrolysis Irelease of energy) , filamen- to slide and muscle shortens. ⑤ Acetylcholine is removed · ⑥ fromthe Synopti dech to the sorcoplasmatic reticulum ⑦ Cross bridges detach- back tropomyosin - goes to its blocking position ① Acetylcholine released from the oran terminal Contraction ends and binds to receptors on sarcolemma. muscles relex. ② Action potential is generated and travels over sorcolemma and down the T tubule. ③ Action potential causes receptors on the SR to Ca2 + and release ions. open  TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLES: - SMOOTH MUSCLES: single, centrally located nucleus CROSS LONGITUDINAL spindle shaped SECTION SECTION involuntary contractions * e # non-striated and so a WHERE? walls of blood vessels - arteries and veins maybeevea tubes of digestive system - intestines tubes of reproductive system - uterus ted ~ intercallewith bladder perchen F disseous # CARDIAC MUSCLES: is present in myocardium branched ~ strictims striated same organisation of myofilaments as in skeletal muscles EPICARDIUM · involuntary movement nervous system - connective tissue 1-2 nuclei, centrally located that surrounds the & miocardium INTERCALATED DISCS: way - allow cardiac muscles to contract in a coordinated fashion, build of: PURKINJE FIBERS - gap junctions - allow quick transmission of action potential -responsible for con- duction - desmosomes - anchor ends of cardiac muscles fibers of signal used for heart contraction  -- - - - -  Narysuj przekrój poprzeczny przez komórkę mięśnia gładkiego i szkieletowego z uwzględnieniem jąder. - SMOOTH SKELETAL e nudei put _ I pretty cell round ⑨ us ⑧ Narysuj przekrój podłóżny wielojadrowego kardiomiocytu. - intercalated discs = with desmosomes and l gop junctions located centrally ovoid nuclei 1-2 , caused by actin and filaments myosin CARTILAGE cartilage => chondrocyte strong, flexible, supporting, specialised connective tissue produced by chondrocytes NO VESSELS, NO NERVES PORT T chondrocytes in lacunae - isogenic groups - groups of chondrocytes that are really close together, each one of them is in their own lacunae and they come from on mother cell by mitosis Hyaline and elastic cartilage are surrounded by sheath of dense connective tissue - PERICHONDRIUM which is vascularised. From there they get nutrients (diffusion from capillaries). There is no perichondrium in fibrocartilage and stawowa piyn maziony articular cartilage (it gets nutrients from synovial fluid) TYPES OF CARTILAGE: no perichondrium - HYALINE CARTILAGE - szklista e ↑ E brauszue articular surfaces of movable joints, walls of larger respiratory passages, ventral ends of ribs (where they articulate with mosteh sternum), epiphyseal plates of long bones, in embryo- temporal skeleton C - zasahi ne chresthi Il warustu STRUCTURE: cells occupy relatively little of hyaline cartilage, may be in groups you collagen II, proteoglycans, glycoproteins can't see SUPPORT · ⑳ the fibers · ROLE IN BONE FORMATION * * ELASTIC CARTILAGE naglosnic external ear, walls of auditory canals, Eustachian tubes, epiglottis & Did STRUCTURE: much more fibers than in hyaline cartilage + elastic fibers structure resembles the one of hyaline · ELASTIY - FIBROCARTILAGE mingling of hyaline cartilage and dense connective tissue (COLLAGEN TYPE I) NO PERICHONDRIUM kruzhi midzykresoe spence powe rissue intervertebral discs, attachment of certain ligaments, pubic symphysis · TOUGH -CUSMIONING support STRUCTURE: fibers and cells aligned in rows chondrocytes and fibroblasts ECM OF CARTILAGE It has firm consistency that allows tissue to bare mechanical stress without permanent distortion!  Jaki proces odpowiedzialny jest za odżywianie się chondrocytów? Gdzie leżą naczynia krwionośne zaopatrujące je w substancje odżywcze? Blood vessels are present in perichandrium , which is a dense loyer of connective tissue that covers elastic and hyaline cartilage The rubstances ore transported via diffusion from perichondrium to the cartilage. The articular contilge gets nutrients from synovial fluid as it has no perichondrium.  BONES specializea tissue - M ↑ primarily composed of ECM: epiphysis diephysis Osteoid-type I collagen - organic matter - OSTEOID - type I collagen and ground substance ground substance mineral salts - inorganic components - mineral salts - calcium hydroxyapatite - GIVES RIGIDITY * ↳ calcium hydroxicpatite cells: OSTEOBLASTS, OSTEOCYTES, OSTEOCLASTS allows only appositional growth bone aging ;] /layer on top of LAMELLAR BONE - collagen fibers arranged into dense parallel arrays each other) *all bones in adult animals are lamellar woven bone - randomly arranged collagen fibers Not interstial *embryonic skeleton, places of rapid bone growth and replacement growth CORTEX: denseirregula tissue ⑯rous outer - periosteum - heath outside nones that supplies them with blood, nerves and cells that enable growth and healing - layers: outer - fibrous and inner osteogenic - cambium umbium inner - endosteum - lines the center of the bone, cavities containing bone marrow, Haversian canals lamellaa ⑭ competej TYPES OF BONE TISSUES: spongy bones (cancellous) b compact (cortical) bones - lamellar - osteonal STRUCTURE OF THE BONE compact bones morrow with l covities adipocytes CROSS SECTION LONGITUDINAL · bone lamellae arrange i· themselves in osteons ⑳ - (collagen) endosteum lamella (collagen)  produce : parathormon ↓ type collagen I · CELLS OF BONE TISSUE · proteoglycans Osteoblast,Osteoya glycoproteins · * OSTEOBLASTS ↓ T the cells that form new bones and grow and heal existing bones osteoclasts they release bone matrix that turns proteins into new tissue · participate in mineralisation NO LACUNAE NO · rostations along the surface of bones , within bone matrix they become embedded within the bone and become osteocytes OSTEOCYTE smaller Osteoblast than angular , cuboidal shape smaller, elongated cells contained within small cavities - lacunae they connect with other osteocytes via long dendritic processes, which at the ends have gap junctions; they are contained in canaliculi /sma assist with nutrition of the bone role in calcium homeostasis by controlling the ammount of calcium that is released to the or removed from circulating pool of calcium = ↳ the biggest OSTEOCLASTS multinucleated im they resort the bone and are present in howship lacunae in a bone that is undergoing reabsorption removes calcified bone matrix allows constant turnover and remodelling of bones Osteoclasts reabsorb bone through the Mone i production of proteolytic enzymes and secretion H+ ions into localised microenvironment under ruffled border. projections They dissolve the mineral and break down the matrix. They also present Cathepsin K, which breaks down type I collagen.  OSSIFICATION the process of bone formation Uhrastha 1. ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION - from cartilage stages: perichondrium periosteum formation of bone collar by osteoblasts that differentiate in perichondrium, which then changes to periosteum vessels from the perichondrium penetrate the bone collar in the middle and create a primary center of ossification in the diaphysis osteoblasts deposit the osteoid, creating the woven bone, which is the remodelled into a compact bone next blood vessels penetrate the cartilage above the primary center, creating the secondary center of ossification in epiphyses along with the vessels, more osteoblasts go into the bone collar and take part in formation of the bone small amounts of cartilage remain, forming the epiphyseal plate, which allows growth of the bone and is present till the growing process is finished epiphyses *disphyses MOST BONES , ↓ BUT ESPECIALLY LONG BONES 2. MESENCHYMAL OSSIFICATION - without cartilage stage flat bones within the condensed mesenchyme, bone formation begins in ossification centers, areas in which osteoprogenitor cells arise, proliferate, and form incomplete layers of osteoblasts around a network of developing capillaries osteoid secreted by the osteoblasts calcifies, forming small irregular areas of woven bone with osteocytes in lacunae and canaliculi - FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES: they are calcium reservoir provide structure and support for the body protection of some organs blood formation in bone marrow  Jakie elementy strukturalne odpowiedzialne są za odżywianie się osteocytów? Osteocytes get nutriens through their dendrites , which extend into canaliculi , inwhich blood vessels are vessels come from in present. Those small bigger ones Hoversion canals. DIFFUSION Narysuj schemat fragmentu kości zbitej w przekroju podłużnym widzianej w mikroskopie świetlnym. Podpisz detale rysunku. · resion projections lamellae canal in lacunae stern inside : with le ne blood vessels Lympholic vessels nerves BLOOD PAFG E PROTEINS 7 % - Albumins , Globulins , Fibrinogen , Prothrombin parts of membrance of megakaryocyte V M · NEUTROPHILS - most common E · LYMPHOCYTES B · MONOCYTES EOSINOPHILS & · BASOPHILS · production of trombocytes megakaryocyte proplatelet - blood * vessel gakaryocyte blood now vesse monocyte when needed they the blood go through vessel and change into macrophages 1 ↑. Under There in is mammals is ejected also loss it undergoes of phagocytosis polyribosomes..  BLOOD CELLS innum · platelets enythrocytes lymphocytes O O O · O O o phil neutro- D phil ⑳ baso- : ERYTHROCYTES cosino- phil terminally differentiated structures lacking nuclei and completely filled with the O2-carrying protein hemoglobin they also transport CO2 and H+ for maintaining blood pH (blood is very slightly basic) erythroblast -> reticulocyte (no nucleus) -> erythrocytes (no nucleus and no polyribosomes) - ⑳ the biconcave shape provides a large surface-to-volume ratio and facilitates gas exchange most abundant cell in the blood = quite flexible, which permits them to bend and adapt to the small diameters and irregular turns of capillaries LEUKOCYTES granulocytes - neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils - they have lysosomes and specific granules agranulocytes - monocytes and lymphocytes - they only have lysosomes leukocytes leave the blood and migrate to the tissues where they become functional and perform various activities related to immunity - diapedesis  GRANULOCYTES # 1. NEUTROPHILS they destroy without looking most common leukocyte what they are destroying they have moving capabilities they may have Barr bodies - only in female - morphological expression of inactivated chromosome FUNCTIONS: digestion of bacteria phagocytosis they release cytokines, which amplify inflammatory reactions by several other cell types ⑳or neutrophil's nucleus O is · ↑ young not lobulated Female not as many granules , they are seen under transmission.... microscope but not under light microscope NUCLEUS lysosomes membrane & specific grames # 2. EOSINOPHILS they have moving capabilities FUNCTIONS: phagocytosis and digestion of parasites and antigen-antibodies complexes modulating of inflammation - their amount increases during allergic reactions ⑳ BILOBED mucleus · specific) & specific O sosomes * 3. BASOPHILS nucleus more or less they have moving capabilities they are the rarest segmented lots of granules and they FUNCTIONS: are the some color as modulating of inflammation nucleus their specific — basophilic - granules contain a lot of HEPARINE and HISTAMINE allegia reactions AGRANULOCYTES # 1. MONOCYTES: precursors of macrophages, osteoclasts, microglia and other cells of phagocyte system phagocytosis ⑳ · C/beam/kidney shape a MORE CRUCIAL FOR THE LYMPHATIC # 2. LYMPHOCYTES: SYSTEM TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES , CANNOT BE DISTINGUISHED IN LYMPHOCYTES B LIGHT MICROSCOPY Lymphocytes B are produced in bone marrow, where they grow and mature. B -bone marrow They can differentiate into plasma cells. Actually the undifferentiated cells are inactive and when they pass into the specific tissue they become active as plasma cells. and plasma cells secret antibodies They provide humoral immunity. = immunoglobulins LYMPHOCYTES T Lymphocytes T are produced in bone marrow and are then transported to the THYMUS where they mature. - helper T cells - greatly assist immune responses by producing cytokines that promote differentiation of B cells into plasma cells, activate macrophages to become phagocytic, activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and induce many parts of an inflammatory reaction - cytotoxic T lymphocytes - recognise antigens and attach to them and trigger apoptosis - regulatory T cells - play crucial roles in allowing immune tolerance, maintaining unresponsiveness to self-antigens and suppressing excessive immune responses NK NATURAL KILLERS They kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses.  DIAPEDESIS Active movement, passage of cells (usually leukocytes) through the intact of cell walls of capillaries, accompanying and inflammation. postcapillary vemules They pass to the adjacent tissue and can differentiate e.g. monocytes into macrophages or lymphocytes B into plasma cells. also gravlocytes - PHAGOCYTOSIS greek to eat or th like that ~ de broughessicphagos e STEPS ceptor arecapi phagosome called Pseudopod 1) activation 2) chemotaxis following gradient towards the place where it is Zeste present- cell , particle antigen only indigestable some telloes pregolysosome - 3) attachment M phagosome 4) ingestion with merges lysosome a 5) destruction Eastered for what ? which process , by cells ingest or engulf other cells or particles CELLS : neutrophils · · cosinophils monocyte macrophages macrophages · - ~ dendric alls - monocytes osteoclasts daughtes · dendridi - · · osteoclasts PLATELETS controlling blood loss wound healing they come from megakaryocytes - giant cells, with lobulated nucleus, they are sitting in the bone marrow O ↳ 6 bigger than monocyte ~ I projection,from ch se arise - ENDOTHELIUM - single layer of thin, smooth squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood and lymphatic vessels. they form a barier between vessels and adjacent tissue they control the flow substances and fluid into and out of the vessels blood clotting control - it provides surface, on which blood doesn’t form clots control of inflammation - in contact with white blood cells of immune system control of blood pressure by constriction or enlargement of blood vessels Weibel-Palade bodies (blood clotting and dimpedesis  CIRCULATORY SYSTEM · ONLY EPITHELIUM AND CARTILAGE DO NOT HAVE VASCULATORY Venues arterioles , and capillaries don't have the connective tissue in Lunica intime and don't have funice externa (exceptanterioles , which have thin very layer of connective ⑳⑳ CAPILARIES tissue. cross section - only 1/2 erythrocytes & DONME SIMPLE LUMEN SQUAMOUS LMUSCLEs ! - EDITHELIUM pericytes pericytes - cells hugging capillaries and postcapillary venules; they are crucial of vessel formation and maintaining blood-brain barier TYPES OF CAPILLARIES: · blood-brain borien · muscles · liver · spleen · bone marrow · gastrointe- stind tract · endavine weding prof. nie jest continuous  nuclei ARTERIOLES of smooth ⑳ smallest arteries is begin organ’s microvasculature ms - layers 1-2 - - sub-endothelial layer is very thin 'nuclei of endothelial cells (more round VENULES => postcapillary venules capillaries ⑳ PERICYTES · -pericytes - : 8 - there actually are some NO MUSCLES -endothelium I large diameter of the lumen compared to the thin wall bigger even then anteriores large (flat) · # NO VALVES > - some scattered smooth muscles ARTERIES ⑭ 1. TUNICA EXTERNA - ADVENTITIA 2. TUNICA MEDIA - the thickest layer of the arteries 3. TUNICA INTERNA - INTIMA - the thinnest layer of the arteries small lumen compared to the wall endothelium pushed to the centre c muscle more or less round thelium TYPES OF ARTERIES: 1. elastic artery - thickest arteries - CONDUCTING ARTERIES - they conduct blood from the heart under steady (thanks to the elastic recoil) and high pressure towards smaller arteries - tunica interna - very often folds; contains endothelium, connective tissue with fibroblasts and collagen and thin internal elastic lamina (containing elastic fibers), smooth muscles - tunica media - THICK layer composed mainly of elastic fibers with lamellae alternating with smooth muscles and pretty thin external elastic lamina - tunica externa - connective tissue with fibroblasts, elastic fibers (loosely packed) and collagen, vasa vasorum, nerves and histiocytes 2. muscular artery - DISTRIBUTING ARTERIES - distribute bloood to all organs by decreasing their diameter and changing into small arteries and arteriols - tunica interna - contains endothelium, connective tissue with fibroblasts and collagen and thick, prominent external elastic lamina (containing elastic fibers), smooth muscles - tunica media - many layers of smooth muscles, little elastic fibers, collagen, thick external elastic lamina - tunica externa - connective tissue with fibroblasts, elastic fibers (loosely packed) and collagen, vasa vasorum, nerves and histocytes VEINS most veins have VALVES, only the smallest don’t - tunica intima - the thinnest layer of veins, VALVES, endothelium, connective tissue with fibroblasts and elastic fibers, smooth muscles - tunica media - connective tissue, smooth muscles and collagen in the largest - tunica externa - the thickest layer of veins, smooth muscles, connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers not rel set flat - large endothelia ⑧ * smooth - I lumen muscles compared to walls VALVES - they ensure that the blood won’t flow back, only in the direction of the heart; they are made up of connective tissue with elastic fibers, covered with endothelial tissues from both sides; they close automatically after filling up with blood, no muscles are involved in the process docently on De HEART two ventricles and two atria - endocardium - the most inner layer of the heart, consist of endothelium, loose connective tissue, small blood vessels, Purkinje fibers, smooth muscles and elastic dense connective tissue that is continuous with that of myocardium and is called - subendocardial layer Purkinje fibers - these are not nerves - specialised conducting fibers, composed of electrically excitable cells; they are very important for conduction of cardiac action potentials - myocardium - middle layer - mostly contractile cardiac muscles, SA and AV nodes, Purkinje fibers, connective tissue, blood vessels - epicardium - outer layer, simple squamous mesothelium, loose connective tissue with elastic fibers, vasa vasorum (coronary vessels), nerves, ganglia, adipose tissue  Narysuj schemat dwóch komórek krwi, które posiadają zdolność diapedezy. Nazwij te komórki. (widok z mikroskopu świetlnego). ↑HERE ARE MORE CELLS monocytes (they change into e.. g macrophages B-lymphocyteschoseels) membe a ⑧ round - nucleus des Narysuj schemat przekroju poprzecznego naczynia żylnego z dwupłatową zastawką. cross-sec nuclei of musc rocket s pocket II lumen Wymień elementy bariery krew-mózg · continuous capillaries with no pores or fenestrations , with continuous basal lamina cells tight endothelial lining capillaries with Light · junctions · layer of perivascular astrocytic feet , which envelope the basement membrane pericytes that hug capillaries · some Wymień w punktach elementy tworzące błonę wewnętrzną tętnicy typu sprężystego. intima · endothelium with fibroblasts connective tissue and collagen · · little smooth muscles · thin internal clastic lamine with elastic fibers Wymień elementy budowy naczynia włosowatego sinusoidal. wider diameter than other types · · discontinuities between endothelial cells fenestrations large through cells · · partial discontinuous basement membrane  Wymień w punktach elementy tworzące błonę zewnętrzną tętnicy typu mięśniowego. adventitia connective tissue with fibroblasts and loosely · elastic Libers · packed and collagen vasa vasorum · nerves · histiocytes Na czym polega process diapedezy i jakich komórek dotyczy. Diapedesis is an active movement of cells circulating wall into at in the blood through the adjacent tissue sites of inflammation. By passing into the tissue they become active and take part in immunity processes. Leukocytes undergo disperesis : grambocytes monocytes (proliferate , to macrophages) T and B /tromsform into plasmon , lymphocytes cells). * EXTRA Which cells release cytokines ? macrophages · · helper T cells · dendritic cells less : · mast cells · endothelium · Schwann cells NERVOUS SYSTEM 00 m Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated communications network. Anatomically, the general organization of the nervous system has two major divisions: Central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and the spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS), composed of the cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves conducting impulses to and · cranial ·Spinaenal from the CNS (sensory and motor nerves, respectively) and ganglia that are small aggregates of nerve cells outside the nerves CNS Cells in both central and perip