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# Chemistry ## Organic Chemistry Nomenclature ### IUPAC Nomenclature: 1. **Identify the Parent Chain**: * Find the longest continuous carbon chain. * If there is a ring, it is the parent chain (cyclic). 2. **Number the Parent Chain**: * Give the lowest possible numbers to th...

# Chemistry ## Organic Chemistry Nomenclature ### IUPAC Nomenclature: 1. **Identify the Parent Chain**: * Find the longest continuous carbon chain. * If there is a ring, it is the parent chain (cyclic). 2. **Number the Parent Chain**: * Give the lowest possible numbers to the substituents. * If there is a functional group, it should have the lowest number. 3. **Identify and Number the Substituents**: * Name each substituent. * Give the location of each substituent by the number of the carbon atom to which it is attached. 4. **Write the Name**: * List the substituents in alphabetical order. * Use prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.) for multiple identical substituents. * Separate numbers from each other by commas and from names by hyphens. * The parent chain name is placed at the end. ### Functional Groups: | Class of Compound | Functional Group | Suffix | Prefix | Example | | :---------------- | :--------------- | :------- | :--------- | :---------------- | | Alkane | None | -ane | alkyl- | $CH_4$ (Methane) | | Alkene | $C=C$ | -ene | alkenyl- | $C_2H_4$ (Ethene) | | Alkyne | $C≡C$ | -yne | alkynyl- | $C_2H_2$ (Ethyne) | | Alcohol | -OH | -ol | hydroxy- | $CH_3OH$ (Methanol) | | Ether | R-O-R' | ether | alkoxy- | $CH_3OCH_3$ (Dimethyl Ether) | | Aldehyde | -CHO | -al | oxo- | $HCHO$ (Methanal) | | Ketone | R-CO-R' | -one | oxo- | $CH_3COCH_3$ (Propanone) | | Carboxylic Acid | -COOH | -oic acid | carboxy- | $HCOOH$ (Methanoic Acid) | | Ester | -COOR | -oate | alkoxy- | $CH_3COOCH_3$ (Methyl ethanoate) | | Amine | -$NH_2$, -NHR, -$NR_2$ | -amine | amino- | $CH_3NH_2$ (Methylamine) | | Amide | -$CONH_2$ | -amide | carbamoyl- | $CH_3CONH_2$ (Ethanamide) | ### Examples: * $CH_3CH_2CH_3$: Propane * $CH_3CH=CHCH_3$: But-2-ene * $CH_3CH_2OH$: Ethanol * $CH_3COCH_3$: Propanone * $CH_3CH_2COOH$: Propanoic acid ## Isomerism ### Structural Isomers: * Same molecular formula but different structural formulas. * Example: $C_4H_{10}$ can be butane ($CH_3CH_2CH_2CH_3$) or 2-methylpropane ($CH(CH_3)_3$) ### Stereoisomers: * Same molecular formula and structural formula but different spatial arrangement of atoms. * **Geometric Isomers (cis/trans)**: * Occur due to restricted rotation around a bond (usually a double bond or in a ring). * Cis: Substituents are on the same side. * Trans: Substituents are on opposite sides. * **Optical Isomers (Enantiomers)**: * Non-superimposable mirror images. * Chiral center: A carbon atom bonded to four different groups. * Enantiomers have identical physical properties except for the direction in which they rotate plane-polarized light. * A racemic mixture is a 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers and shows no optical activity. ## Reactions ### Addition Reactions: * Two molecules combine to form a single molecule. * Example: $CH_2=CH_2 + H_2 → CH_3CH_3$ ### Substitution Reactions: * An atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. * Example: $CH_4 + Cl_2 → CH_3Cl + HCl$ ### Elimination Reactions: * A small molecule is removed from a larger molecule, forming a multiple bond. * Example: $CH_3CH_2Cl → CH_2=CH_2 + HCl$ ### Redox Reactions: * **Oxidation**: Increase in oxidation number (loss of electrons). * **Reduction**: Decrease in oxidation number (gain of electrons). * In organic chemistry, oxidation often involves an increase in the number of bonds to oxygen or a decrease in the number of bonds to hydrogen. Reduction is the opposite. * Example: $CH_3CH_2OH \overset{Oxidation}{\longrightarrow} CH_3CHO \overset{Oxidation}{\longrightarrow} CH_3COOH$ ### Esterification: * Reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form an ester and water. * Example: $CH_3COOH + CH_3OH \rightleftharpoons CH_3COOCH_3 + H_2O$ ### Saponification: * Hydrolysis of an ester (usually a fat or oil) with a base to produce a soap (a salt of a fatty acid) and an alcohol (usually glycerol). * Example: $(RCOO)_3C_3H_5 + 3NaOH → 3RCOONa + C_3H_5(OH)_3$ ### Polymerization: * Small repeating units (monomers) combine to form a large molecule (polymer). * **Addition Polymerization**: Monomers add directly to each other. * **Condensation Polymerization**: Monomers combine with the elimination of a small molecule (e.g., water).