Southeast Asia: An Overview PDF

Page 1 Southeast Asia: An Overview ○ Daljit Singh The land, seas, and people ○ Southeast Asia is mostly a maritime region with waterways, islands and peninsulas forming a large part of its geography. ○ Indonesia and Philippines – large archipelagos of thou...

Page 1 Southeast Asia: An Overview ○ Daljit Singh The land, seas, and people ○ Southeast Asia is mostly a maritime region with waterways, islands and peninsulas forming a large part of its geography. ○ Indonesia and Philippines – large archipelagos of thousands of islands. ○ “Continental” Southeast Asia – Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. ○ Laos is the only “landlocked” country – lacking direct access to the sea or ocean. ○ Southeast Asia as a region cannot close itself from the outside world the way large continental powers can because of its maritime character. Its early history has been open to traders from many countries. Page 2 ○ The main sea routes between the Indian and Pacific oceans (trade, commerce, naval movements) pass through narrow straits in Southeast Asia, making it a region of great strategic importance. Strait of Malacca and Singapore (for Japan, China and Korea) Sunda Strait, the Lombok Strait and the Makassar Strait (in Indonesia) ○ Southeast Asia is rich in natural resources. world’s largest supplier of natural rubber and palm oil also has minerals, such as oil, tin, copper, gold, bauxite and natural gas. ○ Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries are significant insofar as “population size is concerned.” Most of them are large nations. Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Myanmar, Malaysia, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Cambodia, Brunei Darussalam. ○ Southeast Asia is still part of the developing world, with much room for further development. Due to its total gross domestic product considering its population size. GDP – total monetary value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders over a specific period, usually a year. ○ The region “Southeast Asia” was frequently referred to as the “theater of war” during WW2. therefore accepted as a distinct geographical region. The strategic importance of its location between China, India, and Australia, along with its vital sea routes, made it a critical area of focus for military and geopolitical purposes. ○ The label "Southeast Asia" should not be assumed to imply homogeneity among its constituent parts, just as the term "Europe" does not suggest uniformity. There is an enormous variety of peoples, cultures, languages, religions and political systems in Southeast Asia. Most of the world’s great religions are found here. There are more Muslims in Southeast Asia than in the Arab world and more Christians than in France and Spain combined.  Until the colonial powers changed the flows of trade from the 17th century onwards, maritime trade linked Southeast Asians more closely to any extra-regional power, whether India, China or distant countries of Europe. Malay language served as the main lingua franca of trade. Page 3 China and India ○ Two great centers of Asian civilization that had a significant influence upon Southeast Asia’s early history. But it would be incorrect to regard Southeast Asia as just a product of Indian or Chinese culture and traditions. ○ Southeast Asia had its own cultures and languages and its own trading patterns even before the impact of India began in the early part of the first millennium. Southeast Asian societies borrowed and adapted external influences and practices, just as many other societies, ancient and modern, have done in other parts of the world. Western colonial period ○ Had a powerful impact on Southeast Asia, but should be seen in the proper historical perspective and not exaggerated. ○ Southeast Asians were far from being primitive peoples before colonial rulers arrived. Large and powerful kingdoms flourished long before then. Women during pre-colonial Southeast Asia ○ often enjoyed better autonomy and status in society. ○ high female participation in trade and business all over Southeast Asia. ○ the value of daughters was never questioned. ○ some kingdoms in Southeast Asia also had female rulers, including Patani and Aceh. Page 4 Early history: Indian influence and the arrival of Islam ○ Southeast Asian kingdoms in the first millennium were influenced by India in terms of religion, government, law, architecture and arts such as sculpture, dance and music. Except Philippines and Vietnam ○ Indian cultural impact took place for a period of over a thousand years, not through conquest or colonization, but peacefully through the spread of ideas by traders and religious teachers. Sanskrit words have enriched the vocabularies of languages in Southeast Asia. Kingdom of Srivijaya ○ Dominated the Strait of Malacca and its environs for several centuries, controlling much of the regionʼs trade. Palembang became one of the most important Buddhist centers in Southeast Asia.  Hindu classics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana still have a significant place in the classical dances and shadow plays of the region. Great temples and religious monuments were built. They have no equivalents in India, a fact that shows the creativity of the Southeast Asians in adapting and developing the Indian model. ○ Southeast Asian kingdoms that creatively borrowed and adapted Indian ideas. ○ Theravada Buddhism – predominant religion in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. Originally came from south India and Ceylon. ○ Mahayana Buddhism – China and Vietnam. ○ Islam later replaced Hinduism and Buddhism – maritime Southeast Asia except on the Indonesian island of Bali, where Hinduism still remains the predominant religion. Page 5 Early history: Chinese influence and the arrival of Islam ○ China was featured prominently in the early history of Southeast Asia. ○ Its cultural influence was less extensive than India’s, confined mainly to Vietnam, the northern part of which was ruled by the Chinese for a thousand years. The Vietnamese adopted important elements of Chinese culture, including Confucianism. Emphasizing moral integrity, social harmony, and the importance of family and respect for elders ○ Some Chinese intermarried with local elites or adopted local cultures and played important roles in the country’s business or political affairs. There were strong Chinese trade links with Southeast Asia, with China providing products like ceramics and textiles, while Southeast Asians sold aromatics, wood products and raw materials. ○ Before Western colonialism, China had a geopolitical impact on Southeast Asia in a way that India did not, except for a brief period in the 11th century. It was felt more directly in regions bordering China such as when Vietnam and Burma were invaded by the Chinese. It was felt more loosely and intermittently in maritime Southeast Asia, where Southeast Asian rulers periodically paid tribute to the Chinese emperor and were given trade privileges in return. China then maintained a diplomatic alliance with Malacca and acted as a counter-balance to potential threats to Malacca. Malaysian state They intervened in conflicts in the region in support of local rulers deemed friendly to China. ○ The large-scale spread of Islam in maritime Southeast Asia occurred only from the late 13th century.  Islam was brought to this region by mainstream Sufi scholars, preachers, and traders from the Hadhramaut region of southern Arabia; Gujerat and the Malabar region of India. Islam was also transmitted to the region by Muslims from China. Page 6 Two features of this early period of the Islamization of Southeast Asia: ○ Its syncretic character, with a strong Sufi mystical element, made it easily acceptable to the animist, Hindu and mystical traditions of much of maritime Southeast Asia. syncretic character – combination of different forms of belief or practice Sufi mystical element – spiritual aspect of religion. animist – believers of the natural world. ○ The spread of Islam was peaceful. Starting from ports and coastal areas, Islam spread into the interiors, and within a couple of centuries, much of what is now Indonesia, the Malay Peninsula, and southern Philippines became Muslim peaceful but swift spread = simplicity of the faith, egalitarian appeal to the ordinary people, and the easy process of conversion into the religion. ○ Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim country. Democratic systems of government with free elections are rare in the Muslim world. ○ Except the two Muslim-majority states in Southeast Asia: Indonesia and Malaysia are democracies that regularly hold free elections. ○ Islamist political parties in Indonesia and Malaysia remain a minority and are in no position to win power through national elections. terrorism has reared its ugly head in the region and caused violence, but those supporting radicalism and terrorism remain a tiny minority. Western colonialism and its impact ○ 19th century European colonial expansion into Asia was driven by the desire for commercial profit and imperial ambition. imperial ambition – desire of a nation to expand its power, influence, and control over other territories or countries. ○ the missionary drive to Christianize Asian societies was also a significant motive Spanish in the Philippines. their superior technology, weapons of war, and their exploitation of rivalries and animosities among Asian rulers, small numbers of colonial soldiers, sailors and administrators were able to prevail and hold sway over much larger Asian populations. ○ 1511 The Portuguese captured Malacca, marking the beginning of Western influence in Southeast Asia. They later moved on to the Moluccas (eastern Indonesia) to control the lucrative spice trade. ○ 16th and 17th centuries  The Spanish, expanding from their empire in the Americas, began the colonization of the Philippines. ○ Early 17th century Dutch wrested control of the spice trade from the overextended and by now weaker Portuguese. Page 7 1786 ○ The British established themselves in Penang on the Strait of Malacca. 1819 ○ The British founded Singapore, which rapidly expanded as a free port and trading hub. Late 19th century ○ The British moved into the Malay Peninsula to secure the hinterland of their trading ports. 1880s ○ The British expanded into lower Burma, taking control of the entire country. Mid-19th century ○ The French secured their control over what is now known as Indochina. End of the 19th century ○ All of Southeast Asia, except Thailand, was under colonial rule. Reason Thailand was spared ○ There was an understanding between the British and the French to preserve Thailand as a buffer state between their respective possessions, aided by skillful Thai diplomacy. Buffer State – zone of separation established to prevent direct border conflicts between colonial powers. Bad Western colonialism in Southeast Asia resulted in the: ○ indignities of foreign domination (local people were humiliated), ○ discrimination against the local people, ○ and economic exploitation of the colonies for the benefit of the colonial power. Good Western colonialism in Southeast Asia resulted in the: ○ they built infrastructures, developed plantation agriculture, and modern mining operations to extract minerals and metals. ○ they set up schools for local people in the English, French or Dutch medium to fill lower-level civil service positions, along with a few colleges and universities to train local professionals. ○ they established Western systems of government, legal systems, judiciaries, the rule of law, and generally maintained peace with law and order. ○ access to western education and liberal political values of the colonial powers made the better-educated people among locals aware and regarding the bitter ironies and injustices of colonialism which also raised their political consciousness. Some of them were later to lead the nationalist anti-colonial movements.  Borders of present-day Southeast Asian states were drawn largely by the colonial powers to suit their interests. ○ The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 established the boundaries between present-day Indonesia on one side and Malaysia and Singapore on the other, defining British and Dutch areas of control in Southeast Asia. ○ The 1907 Anglo-Siamese Treaty settled the boundary between peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, while the French defined the borders between Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. Page 8 Downside VS. Goodside of drawing boundaries: ○ These boundary divisions often placed ethnic or religious minorities on the wrong side of the border, separating them from their communities on the other side. The 1907 border agreement between Britain and Siam forced Siam to give up Kedah, Perlis, and Kelantan, leaving the Patani Muslim minority in southern Thailand, which later created integration issues. ○ On the other hand, if it had not been for colonial intervention, some peoples of Southeast Asia wouldn’t have their own country. Cambodia might have been absorbed by the westward expansion of the Vietnamese and the eastward expansion of the Thais if the French hadn't intervened to establish its borders. Similarly, Laos would likely have been part of Thailand. The Western impact on Southeast Asian peoples and cultures was more limited than is often assumed. ○ colonial rule – most Southeast Asians lived in rural areas where life continued as before, governed by local traditions, cultures and practices. ○ even in the cities and trading centers in recent times, Southeast Asians absorbed and adapted many of the Western influences into their political and social cultures without necessarily becoming “Westernized”. The Japanese occupation ○ The Japanese invasion and occupation of Southeast Asia in WW2 lasted less than 4 years. had a significant impact on these countries and triggered forces that made it hard to maintain Western colonial rule after the war. ○ In the eyes of Southeast Asians, the defeat of the European forces in war and their humiliation by the Japanese destroyed the aura of invincibility that had surrounded their Western colonial masters. Most of the leaders of the post-war anti-colonial movement received their political education through their experience of the Japanese conquest and occupation. Japanese propaganda justified their invasion in terms of liberating Southeast Asians from Western colonial rule and held out the prospect of independence to the occupied territories. It was soon seen by most of the local people as merely a tactic to enlist their support for the war effort.  The war's demands on resources forced the Japanese to depend more on local people for middle- and lower-level administration in occupied countries, providing indigenous populations with experience and confidence in managing their own affairs. Page 9 Japanese Invasion ○ December 7, 1941 Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor, destroying part of the American Pacific Fleet. Japan invaded Hong Kong and the Philippines. Japanese troops landed in Songkhla and Patani, southern Thailand, and Kota Baru, northern Malaya. ○ December 8, 1941 The people of Singapore experienced their first air raid by the Japanese, targeting Raffles Place and the Seletar and Tengah airfields. This attack resulted in 60 deaths and over 700 injuries. ○ January 11, 1942: The Japanese army captured Kuala Lumpur. ○ January 31, 1942: The Japanese army took Johore Bahru. ○ February 15, 1942: British forces surrendered Singapore to the Japanese. The war also accelerated the rise of communism in Asia, including Southeast Asia. ○ the colonial authorities kept an eye on clandestine Communist parties and prevented them from gaining strength. Clandestine Communist parties ○ secret organizations that promote Communist ideas while operating underground to avoid government detection advocate for workers' rights and challenge capitalist systems, often playing key roles in resistance movements for social justice or independence. ○ during the Japanese occupation the Communists built up their strength as anti-Japanese resistance fighters, at times in alliance with non-Communist nationalists. the stage was set for the post-war struggle between the returning colonial authorities, the Communists, and the non-Communist nationalists in Southeast Asian countries. the danger that Communists might successfully exploit the anti-colonial movement to capture power in Vietnam became an additional reason for handing over the power to the non-Communist national leaders. United States emerged as the world’s strongest power after the war. ○ Third factor that made colonialism difficult to sustain after the war. ○ its liberal democratic ideals were not happy with the continuation of colonialism by the European powers, which had been much weakened by the war and were increasingly dependent on American economic support. Page 11 The cold war and the communist challenge ○ 1946 The United States granted independence to the Philippines, fulfilling a promise made a decade earlier. ○ 1947 Britain granted independence to India, its largest imperial possession. ○ 1948 Burma (now Myanmar) gained independence. ○ 1949 Indonesian nationalists under Sukarno, the first President of independent Indonesia, resisted Dutch control with a Japanese-trained armed force, leading to Indonesia's independence after international pressure forced the Dutch to leave. ○ 1954 The French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu by Communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh, ending their attempt to maintain control over Vietnam. Cold War Era in Southeast Asia ○ 1949 The establishment of Communist rule in China brought the Cold War directly to Southeast Asia, leading to a division between Communist-controlled areas in Indochina and non-Communist regions. ○ 1967 Non-Communist countries in Southeast Asia organized into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). ○ 1989 The division of the region persisted until the end of the Cold War. ○ 1990s Burma remained neutral and aloof from both sides until the 1990s. Communist regimes ○ 1975 Communist regimes were established in the three countries of Indochina: a unified Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. These countries had the Soviet Union or China as allies and supporters. they had an antagonistic relationship with the ASEAN region. Indochina was the theater of immensely destructive conflicts, part ideological and civil wars, part proxy conflicts of the Cold War between the major powers. ○ 1946-1975 The Vietnamese Communists fought wars against the French (1946-1954) and then against the United States and its South Vietnamese allies (1955-1975). Laos experienced almost continuous conflict, often intertwined with the Vietnam War.  ○ 1975 - 1978 The Vietnam War spilled over into Cambodia, leading to the rise of the Khmer Rouge regime, which ruled from 1975 to 1978 and was responsible for genocidal excesses. ○ December 1978 Vietnam invaded and occupied Cambodia, leading to a pro-Vietnamese government in Phnom Penh. ○ Late 1970s to late 1980s The Khmer Rouge engaged in an insurgency against the pro-Vietnamese government until the late 1980s. Elsewhere in Southeast Asia, Communist parties mounted violent insurgencies in Malaya, Indonesia, Burma, the Philippines and Thailand against the non-Communist governments. ○ 1949 The establishment of Communist rule in China under Mao Zedong was a great morale booster to these insurgents. insurgencies were defeated or contained, but often only after a long and bitter conflict. ○ 1957 Malaysia received its independence from the British ○ 1963 Singapore became independent through joining Malaysia ○ 1965 Singapore became a separate state ○ Post-1975 Despite being defeated or contained on the battlefield, insurgencies continued until 1979. ○ 1979 Most Communist parties in Southeast Asia, except for the Philippine Communist Party, abandoned their armed struggles. This shift aligned with changes in China’s foreign policy, which included ending support for Southeast Asian communist insurgencies. The Communist Challenge ○ Communist insurgencies in Southeast Asia were defeated or contained through a comprehensive strategy combining security action with civic, political and psychological measures to isolate the Communists and win the hearts and minds of the people. ○ The use of good human intelligence played a key part in the successful security operations. ○ Bilateral intelligence and security cooperation between states was also important, especially in dealing with situations where the Communist guerillas straddled international borders. Page 12 The challenge of national unity  ○ After independence, most Southeast Asian states had two central preoccupations: national unity economic development National unity ○ required the forging of a common sense of belonging and identity in societies of different ethnic, linguistic or religious groups. ○ Malaysia – large Chinese and Indian communities changed the demographics, making up about half the population by the time of independence. ○ Singapore – ethnic Chinese immigration expanded during colonial days until Chinese comprised over 70 percent of the population. major factor in the failure of the merger with Malaysia in just over two years after it was concluded in 1963. ○ another source of political violence in post-colonial Southeast Asia – incomplete or unsuccessful nation-building and the political and socio-economic marginalization of minorities. ○ Ethnic Chinese – form a tiny minority in most Southeast Asian countries but control a disproportionate share of the economic wealth. ○ Thailand – succeeded in assimilating the local Chinese Chinese have often been viewed with envy, resentment, and periodically made scapegoats for other misfortunes in other countries where this has not happened. ○ Indonesia – experienced bouts of anti-Chinese violence ○ Burma – had issues with ethnic Indians who arrived during the British Raj in the 19th century and became dominant in trade and commerce. Independent Burma's "solution" was to confiscate their businesses and evict them, which significantly harmed the Burmese economy. Successful management of plural societies divided by race, language or religion requires tolerance, respect, and fair treatment. ○ It has been easy for states to celebrate diversity in word, but difficult to genuinely embrace it in practice. ○ A willingness to compromise, instead of wanting to take all, is essential not just to settle conflicts with minority groups but also to prevent conflict in the first place. Conflict can arise from cleavages in society other than ethnic, religious or linguistic. Two largest losses of life in post-colonial Southeast Asia occurred in internal conflicts rooted in ideology: ○ the massacre of those accused of being Communists or their sympathizers in Indonesia in 1965–66, ○ and Cambodia’s killing fields under the Pol Pot regime in 1975–78. The exodus of the “boat people” largely from Vietnam, starting in 1975 and totalling about a million people, was a source of contention and the subject for negotiation among Vietnam, ASEAN and some major powers, as well as a great human tragedy. Page 13 Economic development ○ pressing challenge for newly independent states – lift people out of poverty and raise their standards of living. Starting points ○ Malaya and Singapore – better than others because of the developed natural resources, infrastructure, a relatively good system of administration left behind by the British, and for being spared in too much destruction during WW2. Three Indochina countries escaped serious damage during the WW2 but were handicapped by a long period of destructive post-war conflict. ○ Vietnam – began opening its economy in the 1980s but didn't make significant progress until after the Cambodian conflict was resolved in 1991, which was decades later than the ASEAN 5 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand) began their development. ○ Cambodia – had a promising start in the 1950s but was soon affected by the Indochina wars and the genocidal Pol Pot regime, which targeted educated individuals. ○ Myanmar – faced destruction during WW2 and, shortly after gaining independence, fell into economic nationalism, socialism, and isolationism, leading to wrong policy choices since the 1960s that severely hindered its development. It is, therefore, not surprising that there are wide socio-economic gaps among Southeast Asian states today. Page 14 Countries rich in natural resources often struggle economically due to their inability to convert these assets into sustainable development. ○ Despite their wealth of natural resources, Indonesia ranks mid-level in Southeast Asia, while Myanmar is at the bottom. Success relies on wise political leadership, stability, human resource development, conflict avoidance, good governance, and investor-friendly policies, all requiring trained personnel supported by strong education and healthcare systems. Foreign direct investments (FDI) ○ 1970s-1980s Foreign direct investments (FDIs) from Japan, America, and Europe boost Southeast Asia’s economic growth and job creation. ○ Mid-1990s Southeast Asia begins losing its FDI share as countries like China open their economies, offering cheaper production options. ○ 1997-1998 The Asian financial crisis hits, severely affecting Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia. ○ 1995 Southeast Asia's FDI share in developing Asia is 34.3%.  ○ 2000 This share declines to 10.1% as the region struggles to attract investment. ○ Post-2000 (today) Southeast Asia faces the challenge of enhancing competitiveness to attract more FDI. Page 15 Systems of government ○ Southeast Asia’s pre-colonial rulers were chiefs or kings with absolute power. existed in Burma and the countries of Indochina as recently as the second half of the 19th century, and in Thailand until 1932. ○ Colonial rule itself was authoritarian. In colonized countries, traditional ruling practices were often preserved through indirect rule, allowing native rulers to maintain some responsibilities and symbols of power until colonial rule ended. Brunei Darussalam – gained independence in 1984 and continues to function as an absolute monarchy today. Political cultures change slowly, and traditional systems still influence post-colonial Southeast Asia. ○ While Western political ideas have made an impact, neither Marxian socialism nor multi-party liberal democracy has fully succeeded in the region. The Marxist-Leninist regimes in Vietnam and Laos established closed economies with state control over economic activity. ○ Marxism-Leninism is a political ideology that promotes the working class's revolution against capitalism to establish a socialist state led by a single party. when this course threatened economic failure, they chose to follow in the footsteps of China by liberalizing their economies and seeking gradual integration with the international economy. politically, they remain one-party states with the ruling Communist parties determined to maintain their monopoly of political power. Countries have experimented with liberal multi-party democracy. ○ Burma faced ethnic and Communist insurgencies as they started off with such a system after gaining independence in 1948. ○ Military Coup Political infighting led to a military coup in 1962 aimed at preventing national disintegration and restoring stability. ○ One-Party Rule The military established the Burma Socialist Programme Party, nationalized the economy, and banned public political activity. ○ Economic Crisis These policies resulted in economic disaster by the late 1980s. ○ Attempted Reforms (1988)  The generals attempted to shift towards market economics and a more accountable political system through elections. ○ Reversion to Military Rule (1990): After the prospect of losing power in the 1990 elections, the military reverted to strict control, which persists today. ○ Continued Struggles Myanmar remains a tragic example of failed political system establishment. Page 16 Indonesia ○ a republic, attempted liberal democracy from 1955 to 1958, but political infighting hindered the formation of a stable governing coalition. Authoritarian Shift (1959) ○ President Sukarno banned elections and established “guided democracy.” New Order Regime (1966-1998) ○ Suharto's regime was authoritarian, allowing regulated parties and elections for legitimacy while prioritizing development. Post-Suharto Transition (1998) ○ Following Suharto’s collapse, Indonesia restored political democracy with free elections, a multi-party system, and guarantees of civil rights and freedoms. Indonesians are proud of their young democracy, but it needs to be consolidated with good governance and sound institutions, including effective legal and judicial systems that can ensure the rule of law and clean government. Malaysia and Singapore ○ Inherited liberal democratic multi-party systems from the British, achieving only qualified success. Free Elections ○ Both countries hold free elections, but there are significant restrictions on media, assembly, and political criticism. Illiberal Democracies ○ Some Western political scientists classify Malaysia and Singapore as illiberal democracies due to these restrictions. Stability and Order ○ Both nations prioritize stability and order over broader democratic practices. Political Structure ○ Singapore Functions as a one-party dominant state. ○ Malaysia Operates as a coalition-dominant state with one party maintaining entrenched dominance, although opposition parties are represented in Parliament. Philippines ○ Democracy had a rocky path.  President Ferdinand Marcos set up a dictatorship under a martial law regime from 1972 to 1986. Freedoms were restored after his removal in 1986, but Philippine democracy has remained blemished by weak rule of law and the concentration of political and economic power in a conservative elite and provincial clans. Cambodia ○ 1953-1970 Cambodia was a monarchy following independence. ○ 1970-1975 Transitioned to a republic. ○ 1975-1991 Established as a one-party Communist state. ○ 1993 A new constitution introduced a liberal democracy with a constitutional monarch, overseen by the United Nations Transitional Authority. ○ Current Situation Free elections are held, and a vibrant NGO community exists, but the rule of law is weak and corruption remains rampant. Thailand ○ 1932 Absolute monarchy in Thailand overthrown by reformist groups. ○ Post-1932 Period Dominated by military dictatorships or semi-democracy, with intermittent democratic phases. ○ Periods of Democracy 1944-1947 1973-1976 1988-1991 2001-2006 ○ Challenges Democratic governments are often weak and unstable, with elections plagued by vote buying and corruption. ○ 1997 Constitution The most liberal constitution, established in 1997 to address Thai democratic shortcomings was annulled following a military coup in 2006. Many changes and modifications to the political systems in Southeast Asian countries since the end of WW2 indicate that these systems are still works in progress or developing. ○ which is expected due to their brief post-colonial history, the influence of traditional political cultures, and existing political, ethnic, and religious divisions. Page 17 Relations between southeast asian states  ○ In the pre-colonial era, Southeast Asian kingdoms engaged in numerous destructive wars over territory and commerce, leading to the sacking of cities and the rise and fall of empires. Colonial rule ultimately ended these conflicts, with all lands except Thailand falling under colonial control. ○ Post-colonial Southeast Asian states operate in a new context with internationally recognized borders and UN membership. Territorial expansion through armed force is met with international condemnation and negative political, economic, and military consequences. ○ Nationalism, ideology, colonial legacies, and Cold War pressures have fueled conflict in Southeast Asia. One example is Konfrontasi or confrontation (1963-1966), an irregular shooting war waged by Indonesia against Malaysia, as President Sukarno opposed the incorporation of British territories on Borneo Island into a pro-Western Malaysian federation. In Indochina, after Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1978, border skirmishes occurred between Vietnam and Thailand due to Thailand's support for Khmer Rouge guerrillas in the border areas, but major conflict was largely avoided. border skirmishes – minor battle Confrontation ○ 1963 Konfrontasi begins with guerrilla warfare in Sabah and Sarawak, involving Malaysian/British troops and Indonesian forces. ○ 1965 Armed Indonesian raids occur in peninsular Malaysia, including a bomb explosion at MacDonald House in Singapore on March 10, killing three and injuring thirty-three. ○ 1966 Confrontation ended after a change of government in Indonesia following the failed leftist coup on September 30, 1965. ○ Post-1966: The new regime under President Suharto shifts Indonesia’s policies towards cooperation with neighbors and focuses on economic development. Page 18 There has been no armed conflict between Southeast Asian states since the end of the conflicts in Indochina in 1989. ○ None among the original five members of ASEAN since 1967. Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Membership in ASEAN ○ principle of avoiding the use of force to deal with inter-state disputes.  ○ Pragmatic common sense has taught policy-makers that war is just not a cost- effective way of settling inter-state problems. The absence of conflict does not necessarily mean that inter-state relations in post-colonial Southeast Asia are always friendly. ○ There can be suspicion and distrust, even as these countries attempt to cooperate bilaterally and in regional organizations. This tension arises from factors like nationalism, including economic nationalism, territorial claims, unpleasant historical memories, and poorly defined borders. Maritime disputes have become particularly significant since the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which allows countries to claim 200-mile exclusive economic zones, leading to complex overlapping claims. Progress ○ Significant advancements in bilateral cooperation and through ASEAN have been achieved. ○ Southeast Asian states are relatively new as independent nations, having been isolated under different colonial regimes. ○ Colonial administration and education policies favored knowledge of colonial powers over regional neighbors, affecting mutual understanding. ○ Given domestic challenges, maintaining national unity and economic development makes sovereignty a priority in international relations. ○ There is a need to further enhance trust and to work more closely together if Southeast Asian countries want to deal more successfully with the economic and strategic challenges that they will face from outside the region. Relations with the outside world ○ Economic realities have always been an important determinant of the region’s international relations. ○ Intra-Regional Trade About 25% of Southeast Asia’s trade occurs among Southeast Asian countries, while the remainder is with major industrialized nations. ○ Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Most FDI in the region comes from Europe, North America, and Japan, with increasing importance from China and India. ○ Economic Relations Strong economic ties and cooperative relations with the outside world are crucial for Southeast Asia's exports, sources of investments, and energy supplies, including from the Middle East. ○ Myanmar's Isolation Myanmar remains relatively isolated from the West, largely due to sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union. Page 19 Security is another major determinant of foreign relations.  ○ United States was the ultimate security provider to the non-Communist states of East Asia, including Southeast Asia, during the Cold War. Its military bases in East Asia and its Pacific Fleet maintained the balance of power and served as a deterrent against the major communist powers. ○ Philippines and Thailand chose to have military alliances with the United States, which exist to this day. In the post-Cold War environment, with the rise of China and India creating strategic uncertainties, several Southeast Asian states, like Malaysia and Singapore, are balancing security cooperation with the United States while fostering closer ties with China, India, Japan, and Australia. ○ Being separate, independent sovereign states, Southeast Asian states naturally conduct their own international relations. ASEAN's Role ○ Southeast Asia's international relations are significantly shaped by ASEAN, which engages in dialogue with major external countries and participates in groupings like the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), ASEAN Plus Three, and the East Asia Summit. Collective Clout ○ Southeast Asian countries have more influence when dealing with outside powers collectively rather than individually. Security and Stability ○ ASEAN aims to maintain a stable and cooperative regional security order to enhance economic prospects through security stability. International Participation ○ Southeast Asian states are active in the United Nations and various international organizations, with seven being members of APEC and all participating in ASEM. Islamic Cooperation ○ Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia are members of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), emphasizing relations with the Islamic world for political and economic reasons. Non-Aligned Movement ○ All ASEAN countries, including Myanmar, remain part of the Non-Aligned Movement to strengthen their international networking and assert their independence. Myanmar's Memberships ○ Myanmar is a UN member, part of the IMF, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and a founding member of the WTO. Page 20 Conclusion ○ As Southeast Asia looks to the future in this early phase of a new century, familiar challenges will remain central concerns for its countries: Economic progress National unity Domestic peace and stability  ○ The strengthening of domestic governance and the rule of law should obviously be high priorities. ○ With the shifting of global economic might towards Asia and the rise of new powers, Southeast Asia’s international environment promises to be different from that in the twentieth century. ○ ASEAN will need to be more cohesive, politically and economically, to deal with new strategic challenges. ○ The cultures of the Southeast Asian region have been enriched in the past by many influences from the outside, and this will continue. With the re-emergence of Asia, Asian political, economic, and cultural currents will lap more strongly once again on the shores of Southeast Asia. However, unlike in the pre-colonial period, in this era of globalization, Western currents from North America, Europe, and Australasia will also continue to flow. ○ With wise policies, better unity, and a measure of good luck; a multicultural Southeast Asia with openness, accountability, and democracy should be able to take its place during this century in the ranks of the developed world. Page 21 1. What kind of impact did India and China have on the cultures and societies of Southeast Asia? India influenced the southeast asian kingdoms during the first millennium, mainly through religion such as Hinduism and Buddhism, government, law, architecture, and arts such as dance, music, and sculptures. India’s cultural influence took place for a period of over a thousand year, through the peaceful spread of ideas by traders and religious teachers, and not through conquest or colonization. Additionally, sanskrit words have enriched the vocabularies of languages in Southeast Asia. China’s influence is mainly confined to Vietnam as it was ruled by the Chinese for a thousand years causing the Vietnamese to adopt important elements of Chinese culture, such as Confucianism. There were also strong Chinese trade links with Southeast Asia, with China providing products like ceramics and textiles, while Southeast Asians sold aromatics, wood products and raw materials. They also had a geopolitical impact on Southeast Asia especially in regions bordering China such as when Vietnam and Burma were invaded by the Chinese. Similar to maritime Southeast Asia, where Southeast Asian rulers periodically paid tribute to the Chinese emperor and were given trade privileges in return. Lastly, Islam was also transmitted to the region by Muslims from China. 2. What have been the negative and positive legacies of colonialism in Southeast Asia?  The negative legacies of colonialism in Southeast Asia resulted in the indignities of foreign domination, discrimination against the local people, and economic exploitation of the colonies for the benefit of the colonial power. While the positive legacies of colonialism in Southeast Asia refers to the built infrastructures, developed plantation agriculture, and modern mining operations to extract minerals and metals. It also includes the schools for local people with English, French, or Dutch medium to fill lower-level civil service positions, along with a few colleges and universities to train local professionals. Furthermore, the established Western systems of government, legal systems, judiciaries, the rule of law, and generally maintained peace with law and order. Lastly, access to western education and liberal political values of the colonial powers made the better-educated people among locals aware regarding the bitter ironies and injustices of colonialism which also raised their political consciousness, later to lead the nationalist anti-colonial movements. 3. Why was Thailand not colonized by the Western powers when every other country in Southeast Asia was? The reason why Thailand was spared is because of an understanding between the British and the French to preserve Thailand as a buffer state between their respective possessions, aided by skillful Thai diplomacy. Buffer State refers to the zone of separation established to prevent direct border conflicts between colonial powers. 4. Why are there such different political systems in Southeast Asia? The reason why there are various political systems in southeast asia is because it was influenced or shaped by each country's unique post-colonial history, the influence of traditional political cultures, and the prevailing political, ethnic, and religious divisions. There were also many changes and modifications to the political systems in Southeast Asian countries since the end of WW2 because it indicates that these political systems are still works in progress or developing. It’s possible that each country is trying to find a political system that will work for them. 5. How do you account for the very wide disparities in economic and social development between different countries of Southeast Asia? As it was mentioned in the book, despite a country’s wealth of natural resources, success relies on wise political leadership, stability, human resource development, conflict avoidance, good governance, and investor-friendly policies, requiring trained personnel supported by strong education and healthcare systems.