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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PSYCH 111 Why are you taking this program? Course Description The course aims to provide students with proper understanding about the nature of Psychology. Theories and research which form the basis of modern psychology will be explored in greater det...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PSYCH 111 Why are you taking this program? Course Description The course aims to provide students with proper understanding about the nature of Psychology. Theories and research which form the basis of modern psychology will be explored in greater detail. The students will also be exposed to the practical implications and applications of these theories and experiments. Course Learning Outcomes 1. Gain a deeper understanding and familiarity about the nature of Psychology; 2. Comprehend the biological factors in behavior and its processes; 3. Develop the ability to integrate information on the individual differences, adjustments in behavior, and apply it to their own life experiences. TOPICS Introduction to Psychology Biological Basis for Human Behavior Human Growth and Development Consciousness and Altered States Add ons: Learning Motivation and Emotion Sensation and Perception Personality Grading System Progressive Assessment- 50% Major Exam - 40% Attendance - 10% Lesson 1: Introduction to Psychology Chapter Outline 1.1 What Is Psychology? What do Psychologists do? 1.2 History of Psychology 1.3 Contemporary Psychology 1.4 How do Psychologists study behavior and mental processes? 1.1 What Is Psychology? Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes. Topics of interest: nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language, thought, growth and development, personality, stress ad health, psychological disorders, ways of treating those disorders, and the behavior of people is social settings such as groups and organizations. Psychology exists for one sole higher purpose: TO UPLIFT THE HUMAN CONDITION. In other words, the true goal of psychology is to improve the lives of people. By understanding them, we are able to come up with ways to develop people and make their lives better. Psychology seeks to... Describe Explain Predict Control...behavior. 1.) DESCRIBE Behavior. This first goal is simple: you cannot understand behavior if you cannot describe it. In describing, psychologists accurately share certain phenomenon which involves classification of data into meaningful categories, either qualitatively or quantitatively. So the first step is to observe people, describe their behavior, and see whether the behavior they are showing is positive or negative. 2.) EXPLAIN Behavior. After describing people’s behavior, psychologists try to explain why they behave that way. To understand further, psychologists assemble known facts, gain insights into the relationships among observable behaviors, and derive principles and models that will explain behavior. 3.) PREDICT behavior. The next step to helping people is trying to predict what their future behavior will be. Being able to describe and explain behavior helps psychologists predict behaviors, using past performances as basis. 4.) CONTROL behavior. If a psychologist has already described, explained, and predicted a person’s behavior, they want to be able to control it to ensure the best possible outcomes. Fields of Psychology Clinical psychologists assess, diagnose, and treat clients struggling with psychological disorders. These professionals typically work in hospital settings, mental health clinics, or private practices. They integrate the science of psychology and the treatment of complex human problems with the  School psychologists are uniquely qualified members of school teams that support students' ability to learn and teachers' ability to teach. They apply expertise in mental health, learning, and behavior, to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, behaviorally, and emotionally. School psychologists partner with families, teachers, school administrators, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments that strengthen connections between home, school, and the community.  Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand individual learning and inform the instructional process. Psychologists working in this subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify approaches and strategies to make learning more effective.  Developmental psychologists study the human growth and development that occurs throughout the entire lifespan. This includes not only physical development but also cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality, and emotional growth.  Personality psychologists are psychologists who are interested in the study of how an individual's major psychological subsystems —motives, emotions, the self, and others— function together to create a person's life patterns.  Social psychology is the study of how individuals affect and are affected by other people and by their social and physical environments. The work of social psychologists allows us to have a better grasp of how group dynamics influence our choices and actions and provides insight into how our social perceptions affect our interactions with other people.  Environmental psychologists are often researchers who investigate how people work with and respond to the world around them. Their research might ask why some people choose to recycle, what motivates people to adopt environmentally positive behaviors and why certain surroundings make people feel happy and productive.  Experimental psychologists use scientific methods to collect data and perform research. They can work in varied settings, including universities, research centers, the government and private businesses. The exact type of research an experimental psychologist performs may depend on a number of factors, including his or her educational background, interests and area of employment. Often, psychologists with training in experimental psychology contribute across subfields , using scientific research to provide insights that improve teaching and learning, create safer workplaces, and promote healthy child development, to list a few examples.  Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychologists focus on the behavior of employees in the workplace. They apply psychological principles and research methods to improve the overall work environment, including performance, communication, professional satisfaction and safety.  Human factors and engineering psychologists study how people interact with machines and technology. They use psychological science to guide the design of products, systems and devices we use every day. They often focus on performance and safety.  Consumer psychology is a specialty area that studies how our thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and perceptions influence how we buy and relate to goods and services. One formal definition of the field describes it as "the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society." Consumer psychologists investigate how the decision-making process, social persuasion, and motivation  Health psychologists study how patients handle illness, why some people don’t follow medical advice and the most effective ways to control pain or change poor health habits. They also develop health care strategies that foster emotional and physical well-being.  Forensic psychologists offer their professional expertise to aid the judicial system in civil and criminal matters. These professionals need strong forensic skills to psychologically assess individuals in the legal system. Forensic psychologists also need strong verbal communication skills and should excel at assessment, interviewing, report writing, and case presentation.  Sport psychologists uses psychological knowledge and skills to address optimal performance and well-being of athletes, developmental and social aspects of sports participation, and systemic issues associated with sports settings and organizations.  Where Psychology Comes From: A History Philosophical Roots “Know thyself”? It was proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates about 2,500 years ago. Socrates suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection—careful examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions—to gain self-knowledge. He also pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another Psychology, which is in large part the endeavor to know ourselves, is as old as history and as modern as today. Knowledge of the history of psychology allows us to appreciate its theoretical conflicts, its place among the sciences, the evolution of its methods, and its social and political roles. Aristotle (384–322 bce). In a treatise on psychology, Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. Then he delved into his subject matter topic by topic: personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory.  Although he lived 2,400 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle made many contributions to contemporary psychology: ▸ He argued that science could rationally treat only information gathered by the senses. ▸ He enumerated the so-called five senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. ▸ He explored the nature of cause and effect. ▸ He pointed out that people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought. ▸ He outlined laws of associationism that have lain at the heart of learning theory for more than two millennia. ▸ He also declared that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain —a view that remains as current today as it was in ancient Greece  Around 400 bce, Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind. (Contemporary psychologists still talk about the interaction of biological and mental processes.) He pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation. \ Democritus was one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice. Putting it another way, where do the influences of others end and our “real selves” begin? SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY Structuralism The founding of psychology as an experimental science is generally credited to a German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). th the founding of Wundt’s laboratory, psychology made the transition from philosophy to science. Wilhelm Wundt was interested in studying mental experiences. He used a method called introspection, which is an attempt to directly study consciousness by having people report on what they are consciously experiencing. Structuralism is the school of psychology that attempts to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its component parts. It argues that the mind consists of three basic elements— sensations, feelings, and images—that combine to form experience. Functionalism Toward the end of the 19th century, psychologist William James (1842–1910) became a major figure in the development of psychology in the United States. He focused on the relation between conscious experience and behavior. William James was a founder of the school of functionalism, which focused on behavior as well as the mind or consciousness. Functionalists looked at how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments—for example, how habits help us cope with common situations. The functionalist school was interested in the purpose of thoughts and behaviors, whereas structuralism was concerned with the elements that make up consciousness. While functionalism largely disappeared as a school of thought, its influence persisted in applied psychology, behaviorism, and educational psychology. Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878–1958), the founder of American behaviorism, believed that if psychology were to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measurable events—that is, to behavior alone—hence the term behaviorism. Behaviorism is the school of psychology that focuses on learning observable behavior (that could be recorded and measured). Given their focus on behavior, behaviorists define psychology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behavior and mental processes.  B. F. Skinner (1904– 1990) also contributed to behaviorism. He believed that organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so— that is, their behavior has a positive outcome. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887– 1967) - founded Gestalt Psychology. “whole is greater than the sum of the parts” Gestalt psychology was based on the principle that the human brain organizes our perceptions of the world, so that we perceive organized patterns or wholes, not individual bits and pieces of sense experiences added together. In contrast to behaviorists, Gestalt psychologists argued that we cannot hope to understand human nature by focusing only on overt behavior. Psychoanalysis Freud’s psychology focused not only on the mind, but also on a region of the mind that lay beyond the reach of ordinary consciousness—a region he called the unconscious. Freud conceived of the unconscious as the repository of primitive sexual and aggressive drives or instincts and of the wishes, impulses, and urges that arise from those drives or instincts. Freud also believed that early childhood experiences play a determining role in shaping our personalities and behavior, including abnormal behaviors. He held that abnormal behavior patterns are rooted in unconscious coficts originating in childhood. He developed a form of psychotherapy or “talk therapy” that he called psychoanalysis. Freud maintained that once these unconscious conflicts were brought into the light of conscious awareness, they could be successfully resolved, or “worked through,” during the course of therapy. Basic Principles of Psychoanalysis: The way that people behave is largely influenced by their unconscious drives. The development of personality is mostly influenced by the events of early childhood. Freud suggested that personality was largely set in stone by the age of five. Bringing information from the unconscious in the consciousness can lead to catharsis and allow people to deal with the issue. People utilize a number of defense mechanisms to protect themselves from information contained in the unconscious. Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind. A skilled analyst can help bring certain aspects of the unconscious into awareness by using a variety of psychoanalytic strategies such as dream analysis and free association. The Id, Ego, and Superego Id: Freud believed that personality was composed of three key elements. The first of these to emerge is known as the id. The id contains all of the unconscious, basic and primal urges. Ego: The second aspect of personality to emerge is known as the ego. This is the part of the personality that must deal with the demands of reality. It helps control the urges of the id and makes us behave in ways that are both realistic and acceptable. Rather than engaging in behaviors designed to satisfy our desires and needs, the ego forces us to fulfill our needs in ways that are socially acceptable and realistic. In addition to controlling the demands of the id, the ego also helps strike a balance between our basic urges, our ideals, and reality. Superego: The superego is the final aspect of personality to emerge and it contains our ideals and values. The values and beliefs that our parents and society instill in us are the guiding force of the superego and it strives to make us behave according to these morals. The Ego's Defense Mechanisms A defense mechanism is a strategy that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety. These defensive tools act as a safeguard to keep the unpleasant or distressing aspects of the unconscious from entering awareness. When something seems too overwhelming or even inappropriate, defense mechanisms help keep the information from entering consciousness in order to minimize distress.  Although some early schools of psychology have essentially disappeared, contemporary perspectives in the field, including the behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, cognitive, and sociocultural perspectives, continue to evolve and to shape our understandings of behavior.  CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY biological, cognitive, humanistic–existential, psychodynamic, learning, and sociocultural THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Psychologists with a biological perspective seek the relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes on the other. Psychologists assume that thoughts, fantasies, and dreams—and the inborn or instinctive behavior patterns of various species—are made possible by the nervous system and especially by the brain. “only the fittest (most adaptive) organisms manage to reach maturity and reproduce” The best estimate for genetic contribution to enduring personality traits and cognitive abilities in humans is about 50%. However, adverse experiences, such as a chaotic childhood, may “overwhelm” the influence of genes.  THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. They investigate the ways we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions, and use language. Cognitive psychologists, in short, study those things we refer to as the mind. “Know thyself.” (Introspection)  THE HUMANISTIC–EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE The humanistic–existential perspective is cognitive in flavor, yet it emphasizes the role of subjective (personal) experience. Humanism stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the central roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making. Humanists believe that self-awareness, experience, and choice permit us, to a large extent, to “invent ourselves” and our ways of relating to the world as we progress through life. Consciousness—our sense of being in the world—is seen as the force that unifies our personalities. Existentialism views people as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct. Grounded in the work of Carl Rogers (1951) and Abraham Maslow (1970), the humanistic–existential perspective has many contemporary adherents. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE This view of psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior, as well as to treat mental illnesses. Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud are likely to call themselves neoanalysts. Famous neoanalysts such as Karen Horney (1885– 1952) and Erik Erikson (1902–1994) focused less on unconscious processes and more on conscious choice and self-direction.  PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING Social cognitive theory is a school of thought in the behvaiorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior. Many contemporary psychologists study the effects of experience on behavior. Learning is the essential factor in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. Early proponents of behaviorism, such as John B. Watson, viewed people as doing things because of their learning histories, their situations, and rewards, not because of conscious choice. Social cognitive theorists, in contrast, suggest that people can modify and create their environments. They also grant cognition a key role. They note that people engage in intentional learning by observing others.  THE SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE The profession of psychology focuses mainly on the individual and is committed to the dignity of the individual. However, many psychologists believe we cannot understand people’s behavior and mental processes without reference to their diversity (Miville et al., 2016). The sociocultural perspective addresses many of the ways that people differ from one another. It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes (Comas-Diaz & Greene, 2013). Sociocultural factors are the larger-scale forces within cultures and societies that affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals.  CHECK FOR UNDESTANDING  Which psychological perspective would investigate how social norms influence our behavior?  Which psychological perspective is interested in how people can achieve their full potential by making positive choices?  Which psychological perspective examines unconscious conflicts from early childhood?  The fact that some phobias are more common than others (such as fear of heights and snakes) and may have contributed to the survival of the species in the past suggests that phobias may be genetically prewired. This is evidence for which influence? HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES METHODS OF RESEARCH METHODS OF OBSERVATION Case study, a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests. Case studies collect information about individuals and small groups. Survey a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior. Psychologists conduct surveys to learn about behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed in the natural setting or studied experimentally. Psychologists conducting surveys may employ questionnaires and interviews or examine public records. One of the advantages of the survey is that by distributing questionnaires and analyzing answers with a computer, psychologists can study many thousands of people at a time.  Naturalistic observation, a scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments. Naturalistic observation allows psychologists and other scientists to observe behavior where it happens, or “in the field.” Observers use unobtrusive measures to avoid interfering with the behaviors they are observing.  CORRELATION Correlation follows observation. By using the correlational method, psychologists investigate whether observed behavior or a measured trait is related to, or correlated with, another. Consider the variables of intelligence and academic performance. These variables are assigned numbers such as intelligence test scores and academic averages. Then the numbers are mathematically related and expressed as a correlation coefficient(r). A correlation coefficient is a number that varies from r = +1.00 to r = −1.00. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The preferred method for answering Independent variable, a condition in a scientific questions about cause and effect is the study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed. experiment. Dependent variables, a measure of an assumed In an experiment, a group of participants effect of an independent variable obtains a treatment, such as a dose of In an experiment to determine whether alcohol alcohol, a change in room temperature, or causes aggression, participants are given an amount perhaps an injection of a drug. The of alcohol and its effects are measured. In this case, participants are then observed to determine alcohol is an independent variable. The presence whether the treatment makes a difference in of an independent variable is manipulated by the their behavior. Does alcohol alter the ability experimenters so that its effects may be determined. to take tests, for example? What are the The measured results, or outcomes, in an experiment effects of differences in room temperatures are called dependent variables. The presence of and the level of background noise? dependent variables presumably depends on the independent variables. Experiments allow psychologists to control Ideal experiments use experimental groups and the experiences of participants and control groups. Participants in experimental groups draw conclusions about cause and obtain the treatment. Members of control groups effect. do not. Biological Foundations of Behavior  “how the changes in Gage’s personality might have been caused by the damage to his brain” perhaps the trajectoryof the rod spared parts of the frontal lobe that are involve din language and movement but damaged areas connected to personality and emotional response  The Neurons The Nervous System The Brain The Endocrine System Genes and Behavior The Nervous System The nervous system is an intricate network of neurons that functions as a communication network for conducting information in the form of neural impulses. The nervous system is divided into two major parts: the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which connects the central nervous system to other parts of the body. The Structure of the Neuron Neurons, the basic building blocks of the nervous system, are cells in the body that are specialized for transmitting information or messages in the form of electrical impulses. It consists of a cell body (or soma), an axon, and dendrites. How Neurons Communicate Neurons communicate with other neurons through the transmission of neural impulses. 1 The neural impulse, or action potential, travels along the axon of the sending or transmitting neuron toward the receiving neuron. 2 Neurotransmitters are released from vesicles in the axon terminal buttons of the sending neuron. 3 These chemical messengers then travel across the synaptic gap and are taken up by receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron. 4 Neurotransmitter molecules that do not dock at receptor sites are decomposed in the synaptic gap or are reabsorbed by the transmitting neuron in a process called reuptake. Neurotransmitters: The Nervous System’s Chemical Messengers Neurons don’t actually touch. Neurons are separated by the tiny fuid-filled gap called a synapse, which measures less than a millionth of an inch across. Neural impulses or messages cannot jump even this tiniest of gaps. They must be transferred by neurotransmitters, the chemical agents or messengers that carry the message across the synapse.  When neurotransmitters dock at receptor sites, they lock into place, causing chemical changes in the receiving (or postsynaptic) neuron. These changes have either an excitatory effect or an inhibitory effect. Excitatory effects make an action potential more likely to occur. Inhibitory effects put the brakes on an action potential, making it less likely to occur. To function smoothly and efficiently, the nervous system depends on a balance between excitation and inhibition, or the turning on and off, of neurons.  Agonists effectively increase the activity of a neurotransmitter by mimicking its effects; substances called antagonists decrease, or block, a neurotransmitter; or substances called inverse agonists produce effects opposite to those produced by the neurotransmitter. Types of neurotransmitters include: Two types of neurotransmitters, monoamines and amino acids, have been most studied in regard to psychopathology. These are considered the “classic” neurotransmitters because they are synthesized in the nerve. Neurotransmitters in the monoamine class include norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline), serotonin, and dopamine. Amino-acid neurotransmitters include gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate. Glutamate and GABA Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that “turns on” neurons, leading to action. Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) reduces postsynaptic activity which, in turn, inhibits several behaviors and emotions, particularly anxiety. These two neurotransmitters work in concert to balance the functioning of the brain and have been called “chemical brothers.” Benzodiazepines, or mild tranquilizers, make it easier for GABA to attach to specialized receptors. The effect is not specific to anxiety. The GABA system is composed of subsystems, which reduce overall arousal and temper anger, hostility, aggression, and possibly excessive anticipation and even positive emotional states. Serotonin (5HT) Serotonin (5HT) is concentrated in the midbrain and connected to the cortex, thus producing widespread effects on behavior, mood, and thought processes. Extremely low levels of serotonin are associated with less inhibition, instability, impulsivity, and tendencies to overreact to situations (e.g., aggression, suicide, impulsive overeating, excessive sexual behavior). Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., imipramine/Tofranil), and new classes of serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs; e.g., Prozac) affect the serotonergic system. These drugs are used to treat a number of psychological disorders, particularly anxiety, mood, and eating disorders. Norepinephrine A third neurotransmitter system in the monoamine class important to psychopathology is norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline). Norepinephrine seems to stimulate at least two groups (and probably several more) of receptors called alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors. Beta-blockers for hypertension reduce the surge in norepinephrine and keep heart rate and blood pressure down. These drugs block the beta receptors so that their response to a surge of norepinephrine is reduced, which keeps blood pressure and heart rate down. Dopamine Dopamine is a major neurotransmitter that is in the monoamine class and that is also termed a catecholamine because of the similarity of its chemical structure to epinephrine and norepinephrine. Dopamine has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and disorders of addiction. It may act by "switching on" various brain circuits that inhibit or facilitate emotions or behavior. Dopamine and serotonin circuits cross at many points and seem to balance one another. An agonist for dopamine is L-DOPA, which has been shown to be effective for treating Parkinson's disease by increasing levels of dopamine. When Parkinson’s patients are given too much dopamine – they begin to show signs and symptoms of schizophrenia; whereas when the levels of dopamine are lower, schizophrenic patients show behaviors associated with Parkinson’s disease. The Central Nervous System: Your Body’s master Control unit The central nervous system is a master control system that regulates everything in your body, from the rate at which your heart beats, to the movements of your eyes as you scan these words, to your higher mental processes, such as thinking and reasoning. The Spinal Cord The spinal cord begins at the base of your brain and runs down the center of your back, ending just below the waist. It is a neural pathway that transmits information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system. It receives incoming information from your sense organs and other peripheral body parts and carries outgoing commands from your brain to muscles, glands, and organs throughout your body.  The spinal cord is encased in a protective bony column called the spine. The spinal cord is not simply a conduit for neural transmission of signals between the brain and the peripheral nervous system. It also controls some spinal reflexes that let you respond as quickly as possible to particular types of stimuli. A reflex is an automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus; a spinal reflex is a reflex controlled at the level of the spinal cord—one that bypasses the brain. Example: the withdrawal reflex The Peripheral Nervous System: Your Body’s Link to the Outside World The peripheral nervous system (PNS), the part of the nervous system that connects your central nervous system with other parts of your body. The PNS is divided into two parts, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The Somatic Nervous System The somatic nervous system transmits messages between your central nervous system and your sensory organs and muscles. The somatic nervous system is composed of sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons send messages from the sensory organs to the spinal cord and brain. In this way, information about stimuli that impinge upon our senses (light, sounds, odors, taste, pressure on our skin, and so on) is transmitted to the central nervous system. The brain then interprets these messages, allowing you to perceive a beautiful sunset or a threatening animal, distinguish a whisper from the rustling of the wind, determine whether you are sitting in a reclining or upright position, and experience The Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls such internal bodily processes as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils. The ANS is itself composed of two divisions, or branches, that have largely opposite effects, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.  The sympathetic nervous system speeds up bodily processes and draws energy from stored reserves. It serves as an alarm system that heightens arousal and mobilizes bodily resources in times of stress or physical exertion, or when defensive action might be needed to fend off a threat. It accelerates your heart rate and breathing rate and provides more fuel or energy for the body to use by releasing sugar (glucose) from the liver. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is often accompanied by strong emotions, such as anxiety, fear, or anger. That is why we sense our hearts beating faster when we are anxious or angered.  The parasympathetic nervous system fosters bodily processes, such as digestion, that replenish stores of energy. Digestion provides the body with fuel by converting food into glucose (blood sugar), which cells use as a source of energy. The parasympathetic nervous system also helps conserve energy by slowing down other bodily processes. The sympathetic nervous system speeds up your heart; the parasympathetic slows it down. The sympathetic nervous system turns off (inhibits) digestive activity; the parasympathetic turns it on. The parasympathetic system is in command whenever you are relaxing or digesting a meal.  The Brain: Your Crowning Glory  The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. The brain is divided into three major parts: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the The Hindbrain The hindbrain includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. These structures control such basic life-support functions as breathing and heart rate.  The medulla and pons contain sensory neurons that transmit information from the spinal cord to the forebrain. The medulla controls such vital bodily processes as heart rate and breathing, and such reflexes as swallowing, coughing, and sneezing. The pons contains nerve fibers that conduct information from the spinal cord and lower parts of the brain through the midbrain to the forebrain. It also helps regulate states of wakefulness and sleep. The cerebellum is involved in controlling balance and coordination. The Midbrain The midbrain, which lies above the hindbrain, contains nerve pathways that connect the hindbrain with the forebrain. Structures in the midbrain perform important roles, including control of automatic movements of the eye muscles, which allows you to keep your eyes focused on an object as your head changes position in relation to the object. Parts of the midbrain make up the brainstem. Forebrain The thalamus is a structure in the forebrain that serves as a relay station for sensory information and that plays a key role in regulating states of wakefulness and sleep. Hypothalamus is a small, pea-sized structure in the forebrain that helps regulate many vital bodily functions, including body temperature and reproduction, as well as emotional states, aggression, and responses to stress. The hypothalamus is part of the endocrine system, and it triggers release of hormones throughout the body.  The limbic system is a group of interconnected structures that includes the amygdala, hippocampus, parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus, and other nearby interconnected structures. The limbic system is much more evolved in mammals than in lower animals. It plays important roles in both memory and emotional processing. Amygdala is a set of almond-shaped structures in the limbic system believed to play an important role in aggression, rage, and fear The amygdala triggers the emotional response of fear when we encounter a threatening stimulus or situation. Hippocampus is a structure in the limbic system involved in memory formation. The Cerebral Cortex: The Brain’s Thinking, Calculating, Organizing, and Creative Center The cerebral cortex forms the thin, outer layer of the largest part of the forebrain, which is called the cerebrum. The cerebrum consists of two large masses, the right and left cerebral hemispheres. A thick bundle of nerve fibers, called the corpus callosum (Latin for “thick body” or “hard body”) connects the cerebral hemispheres and forms a pathway by which the hemispheres share information and communicate with each other. Structures in the brain that lie beneath the cerebral cortex are called subcortical structures (sub meaning “below” the cortex).  the cerebral cortex accounts for more than 80 percent of the brain’s total mass Only in humans does the cortex account for so great a portion of the brain. The cortex also controls voluntary movement, states of motivation and emotional arousal, and processing of sensory information. The Endocrine System: The Body’s Other Communication System  The endocrine system is a grouping of glands located in various parts of the body that release secretions, called hormones, directly into the bloodstream. The endocrine system is also a communication system, although it is vastly slower than the nervous system. The endocrine system regulates important bodily processes, such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism. To do so, it relies on hormones to communicate its messages to organs and other bodily tissues. The Biological Blue Print  Genes are long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that are located at various chromosomal sites within the cell nucleus. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes provide programs or directions for the development of the body and brain, and the last pair, called the sex chromosomes, determines an individual’s sex. In females, both chromosomes in the 23rd pair are called X chromosomes. In males, the mother contributes an X chromosome but the father contributes a Y chromosome. This one difference is responsible for the variance in biological sex. 1. The best estimate for genetic contribution to enduring personality traits and cognitive abilities in humans is about 50%. However, adverse experiences, such as a chaotic childhood, may “overwhelm” the influence of genes. 2. With respect to psychological disorders, genetic influences seem to account for less than half the etiological explanation; this varies somewhat from disorder to disorder. 3. Current evidence is that genetic contributions to psychological disorders most likely come from many genes, each having a small effect. The Interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects The diathesis-stress model a. According to this model of gene-environment interaction, persons inherit from multiple genes tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors (diathesis), which may then be activated under certain environmental events such as stress. Examples include blood-injury-injection phobia and alcoholism. The diathesis or vulnerability does not necessarily lead to a disorder unless some specific life event occurs. b. A person with a large diathesis would, according to this model, require a smaller amount of stress for a disorder to develop compared to someone with a relatively smaller diathesis. c. A recent longitudinal study has demonstrated the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in explaining depression. Genes related to coping processes were studied, and these genes interacted with maltreatment during childhood to explain the development of depression.  Reciprocal gene-environment model a. This model states that persons are believed to have a genetically determined tendency to create the very environmental risk factors that trigger genetic vulnerabilities. b. Such a model may be used to explain depression, divorce, and personality characteristics such as impulsivity Non-genomic “inheritance” of behavior a. Historically, there has been an overemphasis on the role of genetic influences on personality and temperament, as well as on their contribution to the development of psychological disorders. Examples include research on genetically identical mice (including rats and rhesus monkeys using cross- fostering strategies) reared in identical environments, but perform and behave quite differently on several experimental tasks despite shared genetic and environmental characteristics. Environmental conditions (such as early parenting influences) may override the expected effects of genetics. b. Explaining the development of psychological disorder involves noting the