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Untitled Note Thu, Jan 09, 2025 12:04PM 42:04 SUMMARY KEYWORDS dinosaur bone chemistry, stolen research, evolutionary connection, radiometric dating, carbon isotopes, nuclear decay, geological time scale, phanerozoic eon, cambrian radiation, ediacaran biota, snowball earth, multicellularit...

Untitled Note Thu, Jan 09, 2025 12:04PM 42:04 SUMMARY KEYWORDS dinosaur bone chemistry, stolen research, evolutionary connection, radiometric dating, carbon isotopes, nuclear decay, geological time scale, phanerozoic eon, cambrian radiation, ediacaran biota, snowball earth, multicellularity, endosymbiosis, mitochondria origin, phylogenetic tree 00:00 Some faces that were similar in birds, no other animals, and obviously with dinosaurs, and had a connection between, well, she had her stuff done in Kevin kadians lab in Berkeley, California, wonderful lab. I love working in there. He's a great paleontologist. And what happened was somebody was able to get past all of the key cards and everything else, get into the lab, stole all of her stuff. Yeah, they stole it. And obviously it wasn't a scientist who wanted to publish it, because we know who stole it, right? But it disappeared, and it was gone forever, and she was working on her PhD on it. Well, she continued and did a great PhD on bone chemistry, dinosaur bone chemistry. But the other thing is, why would somebody steal that information and not ever see it again? Why wouldn't we ever see it again? Because they want to hide that information of dinosaurs and birds being connected evolutionarily. 01:12 It's what scientists call 01:15 nickname wise lying for Jesus. Okay, and that's exactly what they're doing. They're falsifying things or keeping evidence away. So you have to be aware. You have to be skeptical. Science is not a way of what proving something's true. It's trying to disprove things 01:37 and show that it doesn't work. 01:41 Okay? Mary's still a great scientist in North Carolina. I'm trying to get her here for a talk, so for a couple of other people over in geology, and hopefully if we do that, that'd be give you extra credit for going to that she's amazing science. Go ahead. Yeah. Oh yeah. Do you think credit for going to that she's amazing science. Go ahead. Yeah. Oh yeah. Do you think 02:00 that, or people were thinking that that keep evidence 02:05 away that like could contradict, like a religious 02:11 view contradict the fact that evolution actually is placed in order to connect, yeah, between birds and divers, yeah, which would, which would 02:18 conflict with like, like that religious? Yeah, 02:21 they did find out that it was somebody who was trying to do that, unfortunately. So any anything else does it just kind of help a little bit. So you can study and still be religious. You can study and still be atheistic, doesn't matter. Doesn't matter. Okay, we're okay with that. You already probably had that in your mind because you're biology majors and you were headed in that direction. You already had kind of your world philosophy already developed. Did you not okay? So that's kind of neat. 03:07 Ooh, isn't that neat? Yeah, let 03:10 me go back maybe, and find out exactly where I need to be. Hating computers like I do. I um, this is the one we were on. Yeah, okay, now we'll get back there. The main reason that I went, where I went, was to be able to help you guys with that radiometric date. So again, this is a great tool, and let's take a look now and go a little bit further with that. From the standpoint of we also, besides carbon 14, have what we call clocks in the rocks. So here's carbon 14 down here. We don't need to go any further. Carbon isotopes, say only organic remains, not rock units, but we have rock units too. And so we can see that we have a number of different ways to look at the isotopes in the rocks, not just one isotope, but a whole bunch of them, and kind of cross check with one another to see the date. So when you hear people saying that radiometric dating is not accurate, well, they've never done it. They don't know. They don't understand even the minimal amount sometimes of what you see here. Okay, and don't try and convince them, because you won't. But isn't that kind of interesting? Notice we have billions of years, and what was the ability for us to know that it goes millions and billions of years in some of those isotopes? We look at the nuclear chemistry of those atoms, of those isotopes, and we see that we can actually do what we can see the processes of nuclear decay in ones that we do know, and can apply it to the ones that we don't know. And then we can interpolate from there how long that would take for that uranium atom to decay compared to a basic hydrogen atom with deuterium and some of the other isotopes of that that we absolutely do know the mechanisms of everybody okay with that. So this is kind of nice. You don't have to memorize this. Just know that it's a good tool. This is an important slide, because this helps you understand the clocks and the rocks by calculating the age of the layers of volcanic ashes or other sources of radio above and below, okay, a fossil itself, we can actually establish the upper and lower boundaries as far as The dates radiometrically, and then we can figure out how long it took sediments to cover this fossil right here. Now we don't measure the fossil itself. Why? Because of the fact that the process of fossilization causes the water with minerals that fossilize it nicely to also bring in isotopes that are younger. So we get the wrong ages here with this, but we don't get the wrong ages with the rocks that are absolute in the layers here that we can bracket this in. Does that make sense that way? Does that help a little bit Go ahead. So do you have to? How do you know that? 06:44 Because you said that, like rocks from other times Earth 06:48 and newer ages go down into the 06:51 fossil, yeah, by water, running through it, going into the fossil, bringing in those minerals and those isotopes into it, the rocks up above still have those isotopes in them that are correct. Okay, 07:03 so do you have to find? Oh, so that's so you don't necessarily do the layer surrounding 07:09 it either. You just find, like, if there's volcanic ashes closer down here, that makes it even better. But we can still do that because we know from geology how these sediments accumulate, how fast they accumulate, whether they're limestone, sandstone, shales, mud stones, etc, wouldn't the 07:28 minerals also be washed into the surrounding boxes? 07:33 They could, but we have consistency here, in that layer of having that more so being those isotopes that are with that more than anything, sometimes clay layers actually keep other minerals from coming in there and don't allow them. That's why, when we do get some water that seeps in there, we have robes that have clay in them that makes it rotate back and forth depending upon the amount of water that goes in, not the minerals that are right next into the water, and the minerals accumulate up here. So you have to know your geology to actually be able to figure out what's going on paleontologically. But those are good questions. Yeah, that's good clarification. Okay, everybody. Okay, so far, isn't that kind of neat how that works? Okay, here's the geological time scale. This is kind of nice to see how this works here. The basic trends are important in this little chart right here. And notice that we come from the water and become more adapted to the land, etc. That's the basic idea here. But your time chart is going to be a little bit better as far as looking exactly at the exact dates and the sequences of how it works. But I would like you to kind of know the earth record is divided into the Archean, the protozoa and the Phanerozoic Eon. Notice there's a hierarchy here. Okay, and so we have eons here, Phanerozoic protozoa, archaea in here, and then we have the arrows. Notice there's a hierarchy. Notice the Phanerozoic mean visible light. And notice here that this is basically the visible light that you can see in the fossil record. Before that, it wasn't so visible, and this was named before we started being able to cut the rocks and being able to see the cyanobacteria and the other types of things that are going on there. So we have the eras, and then we have the period, and then we have the effects. And notice here that it's closer in the Cenozoic to the lesser amounts of time, closer to our time, because it's on the earth and it hasn't been buried for so long, and it's not buried so deep, so that we can have more information to differentiate into the epochs within the periods itself. Everybody okay with that idea? It's just a hierarchy. It's like classification. It's a hierarchy too. Now, humans like to do this because they like to put things in nice, neat, little packages. Okay? So realize that there is our interpretation of what things are compared to what actually exists, so that we can understand how it works. When we look at classification, we'll do the same thing close up right there. Notice that we're going from less complex to more complex, not primitive to advance. We don't use those terms because primitive implies that things are less adaptable compared to the more advanced, which mean that they're better off. They aren't they're just more complex or less complex. And complexity works really well, as long as it doesn't get so complex that it doesn't allow survivability, and the same thing there. Okay, this is what we have right here, and that's what I'm going to pass out to you, that you'll be able to use tests that, okay? I don't want 11:12 you to have to memorize it, 11:16 unless you're a nerd like me, okay? Or you go, Cambria, ovician, solarium, divine, Mississippi and Pennsylvania, Permian, Jurassic. Jurassic. You know, I can reiterate a whole ton of crap that nobody cares about. You go to a party, and they go, what kind of doctor are you? And I tell them, and then they go, Oh, well, you're a doctor that doesn't do any good for people, and you don't make any money. I'm going to go talk to this orthodontist already. Okay, so I feel kind of bad about that. Now, this kind of helps a little bit, because it puts things in perspective from that previous chart, and kind of shows you some of the events that are really kind of important. Basically, from what we have, does this change any Yeah, it does. We get more information. The geologic timetable actually changes, plus when things came about, because we have a better fossil record, genetics 12:11 and everything else works, okay, that way we good. 12:18 I will, do you want a copy of this? Also, I'll get you a copy of this. Okay, we'll get you a copy of this, because this kind of helps. And this gives you a road map. Keep these with you when you come to class, because if I mentioned, oh, this is the Cambrian period. This is the Cambrian radiation, you can just look right at your chart and see approximately where we're at. So that works. This is kind of fun right here, because it kind of gives you another way to look at the events that occur along with the geological time periods that exist there. And so let's take a look now at the basic pageant of life. So let's go to the earliest known fossils in here. Again, we start talking about viruses and prokaryotic types of critters here, but we're going to go past that basic cell biology. Be kind of careful, because we still haven't exactly put together the reasons that cells exist the way they do compared to viruses, we haven't made that connection really yet. It's theoret. It's not even theoretical, hypothetical. Okay, so you got to be kind of careful. So the oldest known fossils that we have in the fossil record of 3.5 billion years of age. Remember, the Earth is 4.6 billion years, so we have life in pretty good complexity developing at that point in the fossil record, maybe before we bet we have it going back clear to about 4.4 billion years, 4.2 billion years, etc. So one of the first things that's really important as far as this class goes is the fact that we have oxygen developing in the atmosphere, and we have an oxidizing atmosphere from a reducing atmosphere. And the types of critters and the structures that we see all over the planet are called stromatolites that are blue green cyanobacteria. They are bacteria. Now, if you took an algology class or a Phycology class like I did, many, many, many, many years ago, they kind of put the blue green bacteria as algae and an algae class, okay, but they are true bacteria, but they're photosynthesizing and they're producing oxygen. So that's kind of neat. So prokaryotes, where their soul inhabitants from 3.5 to about 2.1 billion years again, is that day going to change? Yes, it is, that's why it's not underlined, but you should have that kind of a background reference in your mind. Chemical fossils, though, telling us of carbon that could only be produced by living organisms goes back to 3.82 to 3.85 to maybe even 4 billion years ago. Okay, 15:27 good. So far, 15:30 y'all are taking pictures. You can tell it, I spent a lot of time down in Texas from North Carolina, right y'all. Okay, so I'm not gonna make any excuse, other than tell you where it came from. Y'all, okay, I love the South. Kind of fun. Some of the people are weird, but some of the people here in the West. Okay, so here we go. This is kind of neat, because we get these counter blossoms, raw materials like this in Greenland, okay? And what happens is these rocks are so well established, as far as not letting any other type of materials to pollute it or to give you the wrong days, that we can take one of these rocks, take them to a lab. We can slice them under sterile conditions, cause that little block, we can break it down, and we can actually look at the chemistry that existed back to that time period, going into the Precambrian. These are the stromatolites. And what's kind of fun here is you can actually see from Australia. This is the last, the only place that we really have these established like we did in the prehistoric past, where we had the continents as such, in here, making these stromatolytic types of things, with these layers in here of the stromatolites accumulating like they did back in the pretty short pass. I mean, you can find some. I found some up by Brigham City, between honey belt and Brigham City up there in the canyons. So they were all over the planet at one time that helped produce that. Now, here are some of those in short Bay, Australia, okay, and here are some of the modern ones here that we have, but they don't look like stromatolites like that, like the Ancient Ones. They look more like kind of clay blobs on a shoreline. Okay, and then we can go here, and we can kind of see, here's a good example of a filamentous fossil of an algal or a blue green in here. Sometimes we don't have good names for the species here, because the fact that they change to a certain small degree that we don't know, but it doesn't matter. But take a look how it's kind of broken up. I like to use this one because when the rock saw cuts through the rock, sometimes it gets so thin that it cracks. So I did that to show you how thin and how small these can be, as far as a filamentous type of critters here, 3.5 billion years of age. Here's some of the modern cyanobacteria. We see these in ponds. Sometimes the ponds become oligotrophic, or they become overused, for the most part, where it kind of turns in green instead of clear water, where there's some good cycles going on. Thank again, taking a look at atmospheric oxygen, we start developing it almost right away. With all of the microbials, besides the cyanobacteria, there's other types of critters that are also photosynthesizing. Okay, so we need to look at the idea of Endosymbiosis in here, the oldest fossils of eukaryotic cells date back 2.1 billion years. Now that's kind of important. We see a lot of the prokaryotes becoming very prolific at 1.2 and just switch those numbers around. At 2.1 we start getting eukaryotes. They're prokaryotes because of this idea right here called endosymbiosis. So endo means inside, right? Symbiosis is a symbiotic relationship between two organisms. They can be related to one another or not related to one another. It's a symbiotic relationship. Everybody, all right, with that idea, proposes that mitochondria and plastids, chloroplasts in the plants and related organelles were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells. If you did not have the mitochondria in your cells, you would not be able to be the large organism that you are by baking What? What? What does the mitochondria help develop in there, it develops what? In the cristae, in the holes in the mitochondria, it makes, what? 20:16 ATP, what's ATP, 20:19 okay, so the phosphate bonds in ATP are not the phosphate itself, but the electrons in between the phosphates that give you the energy. Okay, so keep that in mind, it's not just the phosphates itself, okay, single cell eukaryotes kind of see where that's at, right there. Okay, and this is that neat, endosymbiotic idea. Now, this was developed by Lynn Margulis. She did some incredible she should have gotten the Nobel Prize for but back in the past, Barbara McClintock, that did jumping genes, and Lynn Margulis, who did this, you know, a bunch of old white guys you know, think that they know everything you know, would not do that. And DNA, the same things you guys know the history of DNA, who, who really helped discover who should have also got a Nobel Prize. Guys we met. You know who I'm talking about. I'll make you look it up again. So she was, she was incredible, without that, Watson and cricket, who were crooks. That's why I like to say Watson and Crick or crops, because they went into her lab and they took that picture of the DNA, diffraction of the DNA molecule. They wouldn't have been able to do their wonderful Nobel Prize winning idea. Go ahead. Did you find it? Roland Franklin, she had cancer and died before she could be given the Nobel Prize, which she should have been Watson and correct should have been kicked in the butt. Okay, so what happens here is this, we have the beautiful prokaryotes right here. Oh, they're they're happy just wandering around. But then they start to get a little bit of what we call invagination around the phospholipid bilayer that's right here. And we start to see that some of the materials in the phospholipid bilayer start to make the endoplasmic reticulum the rough and the smooth. What does the rough do? Why is it rough? Because it has what are ribosomes that do? What proteins? There you go, and that's what you were going to say. So you get credit, all right, so that's pretty cool. So take a look at the machineries in here. Guys, guess what? All of the machiners in the cell are made out of the same material that makes the cell wall. What's my tenant? Nature always takes what's what, what's there, and modifies. Isn't that cool? Is that efficient? That's incredibly efficient. Take a look what happens here. We start to gulp in and get some of these little bacteria that are going to be in their hetero propriety in here, and what they are mitochondria and chloroplasts in here, going off into the plants, going off into the animals over here, and those help do what the metabolism of plants and of animals and making ATP, etc, etc, that is the endosymbiotic you're taking in other types of bacteria. And when you take microbiology, you're going to see that this is true for a lot of different types of microbes, they're in the symbionts. And it's really kind of neat how that works, but you'll do that in micro. 24:10 Excellent, excellent class, very important 24:14 class. Does everybody see? Don't you think windward Miller should have got that Nobel Prize for that? That is brilliant. That is brilliant. Multi cellularity is really important because we see that there's natural selection for being multi cellular in the fact that the cells working together, are more survivable than just by themselves. On top of having their endosymbionts, okay, so the earliest multi cellulose are at warm point two. Okay, so let's go on take a look right here. Here are some of those dates that might be kind of important to keep in mind 25:04 25:04 prokaryotic cells at 3.5 25:08 okay, and then we start to see from the prokaryotes at 2.1 start to see things that are happening as far as eukaryotes. But along with that, at 1.2 billion years of age, we start to see multicellularity develop, also 25:28 with different types 25:29 of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell prevention. So if you take a look at a bacterial map, sometimes some of the maps will actually have cells in the same type of bacterial cells on the top that have more resistance to be able to protect the cells that are in the interior, that do the metabolism, and the cells at the bottom on that mat actually help them adhere to a substrate. So you have different jobs of helping one another of the same type of cells with just different types of regulatory genes to do what have different types of emphases to be able to help each other. All right, multicellular eukaryotes. Good chart there. Now let's take a look at one of these neat things going on here. We're still working on this. It's called the snowball Earth hypothesis, and that's why it's called a hypothesis, because we're getting more and more information all the time suggests that there are periods of extreme glaciation, confined life to equatorial regions or deep sea vent. If we take a look at Antarctica, we can actually go down underneath the ice, and we can see that there are different types of cyanobacteria and algae that can survive underneath the ice that use just very little sunlight that comes down through the ice. So we know that when the snowball Earth, okay, occurred, hot, okay, does that help a little bit off? When we have that occur, we can actually do what. We can actually have life being maintained, even at those extreme conditions. So the snowball event 750, to five, eight, and that changes all the time with our new information, okay, events set the stage for complex life and the Cambrian radiation. They used to call it the Cambrian explosion, but it actually took millions and millions of years to do that. Doesn't sound like an explosion, does it? It's a radiation or a development over long periods of time. We're also going to look here at what we call the Ediacaran biota, which was first discovered down in beautiful Australia. And we're sitting there looking at were an assemblage of larger, more diverse, soft body only, soft bodied organisms that developed into the ones with shells, mineral shells and chitin shells 28:11 at 635, to 542, 28:15 so this kind of is showing you what's going On that led from the snowball event to the soft body so this kind of is showing you what's going On that led from the snowball event to the soft body types of critters. Here we have the snowball earth. What happens and how it occurred here is the earth actually gets into an equilibrium. The equilibrium here is kind of important the standpoint that all of a sudden we have these organisms that are producing oxygen as a waste product, plant food. 28:49 As they produce that oxygen, 28:54 they're taking in carbon dioxide because they're photosynthesizing, and we have the majority of those, and everything's hunky dory, until we start to get a real problem with a huge amount of oxygen, which doesn't have good greenhouse effect to keep things warm, and so we start to get very cold types of conditions. Now, there's other types of things that also led to that. Don't worry about the detail, just kind of get the gist of what's going on. Then when it was covered up, guess what? Some of the organisms that were photosynthetic evolved into those types of organisms that couldn't photosynthesize effectively and were engulfing other types of animals now they're producing what? They're producing methane, okay? And when they produce methane, that's a good greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, another good greenhouse gas. And the Volcanoes are erupting as the geology forms, and we're starting to warm up the atmosphere again, and so we lose the snowball Earth and go back to a nice kind of earth from the standpoint of, yeah, we still have volcanos, but now we've got critters that are what trying to Balance, that have photosynthesis and put on oxygen and are eating other animals, methane and carbon dioxide. Everybody okay with that idea. So we have a balance. But then all of a sudden we start to get a huge amount in these large oceans, in here, things that produce too much oxygen, and we go right back to this. We think that there was like four cycles of this until the earth got balanced. That's kind of neat. Finally, we get to our earth right here. Is that going to affect evolution? Is that going to affect how things evolve and the selection, okay, the timeline here again, of the development of multicellular life is really super important on top of all of the other events that we just talked about. So we have a number of different types of fossils in the Bucha and part of the Precambrian in there, and the Ediacaran fossils that also follow them, then going to the Burges shale fossils, which are really good examples. We also have some in China that are really significant. And we start to see more complexity occur in the oceans. But we don't get out of the oceans, but we are developing more oxygen in the atmosphere, but not a whole lot more. We're only about between 10 and maybe 16% compared to our 21% today. All right, let's take a look at the ediacas, so some of the oldest animal fossils that we have with no skeletons X or endo inside or outside, date back to 635, to 542 million years ago. They're only small because what happens when you become a very large animal? Do you have to have a lot more things going on to be able to utilize oxygen and food adequately, and so we're going to stay kind of small for a little while. It's a lot easier surface wise to actual mass itself. Some of them look familiar. Some of them do not. So we have a number of these beautiful pediatric fossils now these were found down in Australia in what we call the Paleozoic quartzite down there, the ediacam quartzite. But we also find these in China. We also find them in the United States and Newfoundland. So we have them all over the world. First we found in Australia, very kind of 33:04 a brief history of the life on Earth. 33:07 So this is kind of nice to look at, to kind of just get an idea of how things progress, move from the oceans onto the land, etc. So there's nothing really important to memorize here, except for that it shows you that we do know the different types of trends that have occurred here. Let's go to the Cambrian radiation. Again, I use the term explosion because so many books use that, but it's an improper term. First of the sudden appearance of fossils resembling the modern types of phyla. Phyla are groups that we have designated as the different types of critters here, so don't worry about it in detail here in the Cambrian period. The period itself lasted 542, to 480, 8 million years ago, but the radiation is a small part of that time period, so the first evidence of predator, prey interactions, all types of things are occurring there that help make the marine ecology work the way it does. So fossils for all the major phyla of animals appear within a few million years in the Cambrian notice here, 542 to 488 is the Cambrian period, and the radiation lasted from 530 to 520 million years. Does that sound like an explosion? Not your radiation. Are 34:43 we all okay? There? 34:46 Did you all get that picture? We're all good. 34:52 Take a look at the critters. Now, boy, they look a lot different than the soft body. Little, tiny Ed acronyms. So this is the water general. Now this picture is really kind of cool, but it makes it look like as if all these are giants. This critter was only 60 centimeters long. How much is that? Two feet? That's as big as they got. As far as the predators go, everybody else is pretty small Trilobite. Some of them we don't even have today. This is called hallucinogenia. Some paleontologists smoking a bug, so you know. And because he couldn't figure out what the heck was going on with it, we have corals. We have different types of sponges. We have all different types of animals and those that are closely related to us, that are cephalic Coronavirus. Now, did 35:50 we come from these? Did the fish come from these? No, 35:52 but they're another branch that came out, and we'll talk more about that detail 35:58 as we go along. Also, 36:02 some of the fossils from the British shale up in beautiful British Columbia, up by Mount Stephen Lake Louise. Ah, It's beautiful up there. But these were buried over really quick. And some of them, we don't even have a good knowledge of their relationship. And you had a question? Go ahead, oh 36:22 yeah. I was wondering what the plant life was like during Cambrian. It was, it 36:25 was algae. Mostly, we don't have seaweeds, per se for flowering plants that went back into the water like we do anymore. Good. Good question. Excellent question. But there is a hierarchy in there also. So plants were important, animals were right up in there. Kind of cool. This is a another geological setting in China, where we actually have the same types of fossils that we have in British Columbia and out here on the west desert in the delta and delta so we have animal Karis up there again, and a number of the other beautiful critters. Now they're starting to develop what hard shells of chitin, euk polysaccharide, like crabs, lobsters, etc, and mineralized shells. Also beautiful stuff going on there, beautiful trilobites, etc. So let's take a look at an overall view while we're going along here, now that we've established these types of things and show you that there is a hierarchy also, of moving from the water onto the land. Plants and fungi likely colonized land together by 470, 5 million years ago, followed soon by the arthropods that came out that wouldn't dry up because their shells helped them keep their moisture in and protected them from the sunlight they were eating the plants. And then we had animals that ate them come up, like lo Finn fish coming into the amphibians that were eating the arthropods that were eating the plants. So we see a nice ecological type of hierarchy there. Tetrapods evolved from the low fin fishes around 365, we'll go into a lot more detail into these as we go along. We have the colonization of the land. Hey, if you've got resources and you're able to go out onto the land without drying out and being able to obtain oxygen, go for it. 38:42 We get to the Carboniferous period. 38:45 38:45 Okay, this is the Mississippi and Pennsylvanian in the North America, carboniferous and the rest of the world, when we start to have these plants that evolve from relatives of the green algae. And we'll go into more detail into that later. Okay, and these beautiful plants, then we're now developing these mats. Now, we don't have a whole lot of hardwood forests or anything like that developing right away, but we do have some wood that works really well here, as well as oxygen content really going up high at this point. So we're looking at between 350 to maybe 400 million years ago. As we have dragonflies that have wingspans of two feet, 39:33 we have huge 39:37 three to four meter types of amphibians, three to four meter type of arthropods and all sorts of things, because the 39:45 oxygen was so high. 39:50 So we start to see that as things get out onto the land from the oceans, we see the oceans are also being very adequate, as far as those different types of things. Don't memorize this. Don't worry about it. And then we see here, as we get up onto the land, the phylogenetic tree of what we call syropsins and synapsids. Oh, go ahead, 40:12 just another quick thing. What did you mean by cold forests? Cold 40:16 forests. So back east in Pennsylvania, where we have all of the coal beds there, those accumulation of the plants and all of the animals and everything under pressure geologically make coal. That's what I mean. Was it like swamp? Yes, very swampy, I see, and we have some down here in price, but the stuff that in price is more dinosaur age from the swamps, and it's beetroot property too. It'd be really nice, except you might get eaten by a trans source. Okay, so other than that, take a look at this from the basic amphibians going into the reptiles. We start to see all of the basic vertebrates that we have on syropsins are everything in there, except for the synapsids right up at the top that are the mammals. We are synapsids. We're so special, and the rest of these are syropsins. And that's why we can't just call it reptiles, because we also 41:19 have the birds in there. 41:22 So we have, we call it the cirops, and we'll go into that a little bit more later too. Now we're going to look at cladistic versus the basic view of the phylogenies and how they work. How many of you have already studied phylogenies and clavis? If you haven't, it's really, I'm going to give you a simplified version of 41:45 it, and that's what we'll go into. 41:47 Next time, don't get out now. 41:53 You guys got to keep me on track. 42:02 I would love.