Belgian Foreign Policy History 1870-1914 PDF

# Les 5: Geschiedenis van het Belgisch Buitenlands Beleid: 1870-1914 ## 1. DE GEOPOLTIEKE CONTEXT - **Cartoon** - Illustrates German ambition in foreign policy. - The crown symbolizes German Emperor Wilhelm I. - The lion represents the British Empire. - The eagle symbolizes Ger...

# Les 5: Geschiedenis van het Belgisch Buitenlands Beleid: 1870-1914 ## 1. DE GEOPOLTIEKE CONTEXT - **Cartoon** - Illustrates German ambition in foreign policy. - The crown symbolizes German Emperor Wilhelm I. - The lion represents the British Empire. - The eagle symbolizes Germany. - The eagle is depicted as threatening. - **Ratzel & Mahan** - **Ratzel** - "State organicism" - "Social Darwinism" - Views international relations in terms of "survival of the fittest". - Tried to apply scientific laws to international relations, seeking to emulate the success of the natural sciences. - Used the metaphor of the state as an organism. - Referred to Darwin's "survival of the fittest". - States grow as their population grows (Lebensraum). - Expansion of states comes from demographic pressures and diplomacy. - States grow by absorbing smaller states. - They push their borders. - States aim for geostrategic and political importance, ultimately absorbing territory. - **Mahan** - Focused on sea power. - Whoever controls the seas, controls world trade, wealth, and ultimately, the world. - **Factors influencing sea power:** - Geographic location in relation to the sea. - Natural resources, such as coastlines. - The size and length of the coastline. - Population. - National character, particularly commercial. - Governance. - **Mackinder** - World as a closed political system. - The world has been divided by its political powers. - The only remaining areas are in Africa. - Incidents between the UK and Germany in Africa will have global repercussions. - **Consequences:** - The importance of railroads. - **Leopold II** - **Personal Qualities:** - Difficult relationship with his father. - An entrepreneur who traveled extensively. - Had contacts with traders and explorers. - Close friend of Henry Stanley, an explorer specialized in Africa. - **Belgian Neutrality** - Belgium's neutral status did not prevent colonization. - Belgium's neutrality had to be asserted against powerful states (like France, Germany, and Britain). - Leopold II sought a colony for Belgium. - **Acquisition og the Congo** - Leopold II aimed to colonize the Congo. - An area of Africa already partly colonized by Arabs. - Arabs used the Congo as a source for slaves. - This presented an opportunity for Leopold II to present himself as acting against the slave trade. - **Stanley** - Explored the Congo on Leopold's behalf. - Met Leopold at a conference organized by Leopold II. - Mapped the region. - **Competition for Territory** - Other European powers (France, UK, Portugal, Germany) were attracted to the Congo. - Germany had already claimed Rwanda-Urundi - Leopold II advocated to Bismarck that access to the Congo should be granted to all powers. - This would have made the Congo unprofitable for European powers, as everyone competing would mean no one could gain a monopoly. - **Geopolitics** - Leopold II's plan would allow for all countries to profit from the Congo. - This contradicted the aims of powers like Great Britain, who sought economic leverage. - **Conference of Berlin** - 1884-1885: - Leopold II received the "Congo Free State" as a sovereign entity. - One-third of the territory was Leopold’s private property. - The rest was divided into concessions. - **Leopold II's Diplomacy** - Seperately negotiated free trade agreements with the UK and Prussia. - This move ensured that other powers would not prevent him from gaining control of the Congo. - **The Congo as a "State without Customs or Income"** - The Congo was declared a neutral free trade zone, exempt from tariffs and taxes. - This eliminated Leopold's potential revenue stream from the Congo. - Slavery was also banned within the Congo. - **Leopold II's Strategy** - Leopold II relied on Belgian officers who had been granted leave of absence from the Belgian army. - They helped Leopold to expel the Arabs - The Belgian army was used for slave-trading activities, to exploit the Congo's natural resources (particularly rubber and ivory), and to inflict brutal repressions on the natives. - The Catholic Church participated in Leopold's colonial enterprise. - **Leopold II's Financial Difficulties** - Lack of revenue from the exploitation of the Congo led Leopold II to borrow money from the Belgian government. - He claimed that he could not repay the debt in 1905-1907 causing Belgium to take over the Congo in 1908. - The Belgian government's investment in the Congo became unprofitable. - The Belgian government used the Societe Generale company (a Belgian bank) to finance a large portion of the Congo's economic activities. - The investment in the Congo caused a decline of economic development in Wallonia. - **The Consequences of Belgian Colonialism** - The policies of Leopold II had a severe impact on Wallonia's economy and created a cycle of poverty and exploitation in the Congo. ## 3. DE DIPLOMATIEKE LUWTE NA 1870 - **The 1870 Franco-Prussian War** - Belgium avoided being drawn into the war. - The UK played a role in preventing Belgium from intervening. - This strengthened Belgium's position as a neutral state. - **Post-War France and Germany** - Germany, militarily strengthened, posed a new threat to Europe. - Fear of German intervention in Belgium remained high. - Belgium's neutrality became a source of tension between France and Germany. - Belgium had to invest in its defense. - **German Influence in Belgium** - A positive sentiment towards Germany emerged in Belgium. - However, relations with France remained strained. - The rise of anti-clerical forces in France damaged relations further. - **Defense Reforms** - The possibility of another war with Germany caused anxiety. - General Brialmont advocated for fortifications for Antwerp, as well as along the Meuse River. - **The Entente Cordiale (1904)** - An agreement between France and the UK. - Addressed colonial disputes in Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Near East. - Established a common-defense pact, which included the protection of Belgium. - **German Reactions** - Wilhelm II viewed the Entente Cordiale as an attempt to isolate Germany. - Fostered a sense of encirclement among Germany's leaders. - Increased pressures for German expansion, including taking over Belgium. - **British Restraint** - Brittain remained hesitant about directly intervening in a conflict between Germany and France. - **Military Reformo** - A general mobilization of the Belgian military was enacted to counter a potential invasion. - This ultimately proved symbolic given the growing German military advantage. - **The Moroccan Crises** - 1905 to 1912: - France and Britain had an agreement about the partitioning of North Africa. - Wilhelm II violated the agreement by sending German warships to Morocco, challenging France's claim. - This sparked a crisis, which was eventually resolved. - This event fueled German expansionism and raised anxieties about a potential war in Europe. - **The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914)** - The assassination triggered a chain of events that would lead to World War I. - Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible and demanded harsh penalties. - Germany gave its full support to Austria-Hungary. - Russia mobilizes in support of Serbia. - The Entente Cordiale triggered a reciprocal mobilization of French and British forces ## 4. 1905 – 1913: BELGIE VAN CRISIS NAAR CRISIS. - **The Rise of Wilhelm II (1888-1918)** - Focused on building up the German navy (fleet), challenging British naval dominance. - Aimed to challenge the British empire in the North Sea. - **A "Closed Political System"** - The world had been fully mapped and divided into spheres of influence. - The only territories left to conquer were held by European powers. - The desire to expand territory without challenging the existing political structure was a major cause for tension and conflict. - Mackinder’s "Heartland Theory" (1904) - Explained the importance of the “Heartland” (Eurasia) for world domination. - Mackinder argued that whoever commanded the “Heartland” would control the world. - **Entente Cordiale (1904)** - An agreement between France and the United Kingdom. - Resulted in mutual protection, including the defense of Belgium. - Seen by Germany as an attempt to encircle and isolate them. - **German Pressure on Belgium** - Wilhelm II attempted to convince Leopold II to join the German camp. - Belgium remained neutral. - **Belgian Military Expansion (1912)** - Belgium's military forces were strengthened, but these were ultimately limited in the face of a much larger German army. - Belgium's foreign policy was seen as pro-German by many observers within the European state system. - **Antwerp Fortifications** - Construction of fortifications in Antwerp began in 1887, focusing on active defense rather than passive resistance. - Antwerp would be the last point of defense in the event of a German invasion. - **The Von Schlieffen Plan (1905)** - Developed by Alfred von Schlieffen. - Aimed at securing a swift victory over France. - The plan: - Utilize seven German armies to attack France through Belgium. - Surround Paris and cut off French forces from the rear. - Deploy one army to the eastern front (against Russia), as Russia was expected to be slower in its mobilization efforts. - The plan was to achieve a decisive victory quickly, before Russia fully mobilized and arrived at the Eastern Front. - The plan was to defeat France before moving to the eastern front, to prevent a two-front war. - **The "Entente Cordiale" and the Von Schlieffen Plan** - The military agreements within the Entente Cordiale and the von Schlieffen Plan created complex geostrategic tensions in Europe. - The von Schlieffen Plan put Belgium in a central position between the European powers. ## 5. DE SPIRAAL VAN 1914 - The Balkan Crises (1912-1913): - The Balkan states were seeking to expand their territories. - Serbia saw an opportunity to expand. - Wilhelm II intervened to support his ally Austria-Hungary, which sought to maintain their control of the region. - The instability in the Balkans heightened tensions in Europe. - **Franz Ferdinand Assassination (1914)** - The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo (Bosnia) by a Serbian nationalist. - Austria-Hungary viewed this as a Serbian attack. - A challenge to Austria-Hungary’s authority. - Austria-Hungary demanded concessions from Serbia. - Serbia sought Russia’s support. - The assassination triggered a series of diplomatic events that led to a diplomatic crisis. - **The War Declaration** - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (June 28, 1914). - Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, causing Germany to declare war on Russia. - Germany declared war on France on August 3, 1914. - Belgium’s neutrality was violated when German forces invaded Belgium. - Britain declared war on Germany after the violation of Belgium’s neutral status. ## 6. ALGEMENE EVALUATIE 1870-1914 - **The 1870 Neutral Status** - Belgian neutral status was a defensive measure. - Designed to protect Belgium from a hostile external power. - The goal was to avoid siding with any of the major powers and to prevent invasion or conflict. This worked well in 1870. - However, the neutrality became increasingly more difficult to maintain, especially in the context of the rise of Germany's global influence. - The Belgian government was unwilling to compromise their neutrality. They feared that any concessions would prompt aggression. - **The 1914 Crisis** - Belgium's neutral status was largely symbolic in 1914. - It was clear that Germany was prepared to violate Belgium's neutral status. - This reflected the changed power dynamics in Europe. - The rise of Germany as a global power and the potential for a “two-Front war” made Belgium’s neutral status more risky than beneficial. - **Belgian Foreign Policy** - Initially, Belgium focused on economic interests and sought to build up its infrastructure but did not engage in any major power politics. - Leopold I’s foreign policy focused on maintaining the balance of power. - Leopold II's colonialism contributed to the Belgian economic development of the Congo but also to the poverty of Wallonia. - In the run-up to World War I, there was more focus on political and military affairs. - This increased the tension between the Belgian government and the King over the future direction of their foreign policy. - **The Impact of the 1914 Crisis** - The 1914 crisis revealed the inability of the Belgian government to act effectively to avoid a conflict with Germany. - The crisis exposed the weakness of Belgium's neutral status. - It highlighted the need for a stronger military defense and a more decisive approach to foreign policy in the future. - **Key Actors** - Leopold II: - His colonial ambition in the Congo was driven by personal gain and ambition for power. - His neglect of the well-being of those in Congo is a testament to the personal greed that can drive an authoritarian leader. - Albert I: - More cautious than Leopold II, he sought to maintain neutral status. - The crisis revealed that this commitment could be dangerous. - Belgian Government: - Focused on protecting Belgian interests through international agreements. - The Catholic Church: - Played a significant role in the Belgian colonial venture. - The Church was instrumental in supporting Leopold II's colonial ambitions. - The Belgian Military: - Suffered from a lack of manpower and equipment. - Struggled against the advanced German military technology. - **The Role of the State** - The Belgian government sought to preserve its neutrality and was committed to economic interests. - The government faced challenges from the King, who adopted an assertive approach to diplomacy. - The challenges of the war transformed Belgian foreign policy, creating a new focus on defense and the recognition of the changing power dynamics in Europe. - **The Role of Individuals** - The different personalities of the monarchs (Leopold II and Albert I) and Prime Ministers are central to understanding the Belgian foreign policy and the country's stance on neutrality. - **The Von Schlieffen plan** - The Belgian government wanted to use diplomacy to avoid war with Germany. They were fully aware of the Von Schlieffen plan and how their neutrality could be challenged. - The plan failed and exposed the weakness of Belgian neutrality. - The Belgian military was not organized or equipped to withstand the invasion. - Belgium’s neutrality was a diplomatic and military failure. - **Conclusions** - The Belgian foreign policy was a complex combination of economic, political, and social factors. - The country's neutral status was ultimately ineffective in preventing war. - Belgium would need to find a new approach to foreign policy.