Greek Civilization PDF

2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDIC...

2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO Geographic Location of Ancient Greece on GREEK CIVILIZATION Early Maps: (OVERVIEW, GEOGRAPHY, AND TOPOGRAPHY, CONTRIBUTIONS BOTH MATERIAL AND NON-MATERIALS)  In early maps of the world, Greece was Early Greek Civilization (c. 3000–1100 BCE) located in the southeastern part of Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula, surrounded by  Cycladic and Minoan Cultures (c. 3000– the Aegean, Ionian, and Mediterranean 1600 BCE): The earliest known Greek Seas. It consisted of the mainland and civilizations thrived in the Aegean islands numerous islands. Today, the modern and Crete. The Minoans developed a country of Greece occupies the same strong maritime culture, and their palace region, bordered by Albania, North at Knossos is a key archaeological site. Macedonia, and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. Many of the ancient Mycenaean Greece (c. 1600–1100 BCE): Known Greek city-states, such as Athens, Sparta, for the famous city of Mycenae, this civilization is and Corinth, are still significant modern often linked to Homeric tales like the Iliad and cities in Greece today. Odyssey. They had a warrior culture and built elaborate fortresses. In ancient maps, the regions would have been labeled as: Significant Contributions and Legacies of Greek Civilization: Hellas: The ancient name for Greece. Democracy: Athens is the birthplace of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes: major city-states democracy. Although it was limited to male in central and southern Greece. citizens, the concept of governance by the people has profoundly shaped modern political systems. Macedon: The kingdom to the north, home of Alexander the Great. Philosophy: Greek thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle contributed to disciplines ranging Today, these areas still exist under similar names: from ethics to science, influencing how we approach knowledge and reason.  Hellas is now Greece.  Athens remains the capital city, Sparta is a Art and Architecture: Greek art focused on smaller town, and Macedonia is a region idealized human forms, as seen in sculptures like in northern Greece. the Discobolus and in monumental buildings such as the Parthenon. Classical elements like columns The way of writing in ancient Greek civilization: (doric, ionic, and Corinthian) remain popular in modern architecture. 1. Linear B (c. 1450–1100 BCE) The Olympic Games: Revived in 1896, the Early Writing System: Linear B was used primarily Olympics are one of the most visible legacies of by the Mycenaean Greeks and is an early form of Greek civilization. Greek writing. It was a syllabary script, used mainly for record-keeping in palace economies. Theater: Greek tragedies and comedies by Archaeological discoveries, such as clay tablets, playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides, and reveal that this writing was primarily Aristophanes are still performed today and have administrative, used to record goods, trade, and influenced modern drama. other transactions. 1  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO  After the Persian Wars, Athens formed the Delian League, an alliance of Greek city- 2. Adoption of the Phoenician Alphabet (c. 8th states intended to continue the fight century BCE) against Persia and protect against future invasions. The league helped Athens grow The Greek Alphabet: The Greeks adopted and in wealth and power, but also sowed the modified the Phoenician alphabet around the 8th seeds of tension with Sparta, which led to century BCE, which became the foundation of the Peloponnesian War. their writing system. They added vowels, making it one of the earliest fully phonetic alphabets. 2. The Death of Socrates (399 BCE) Importance: This alphabet enabled widespread  Socrates, one of the greatest philosophers literacy and communication. It became the in Western thought, was put on trial in standard for writing works of literature, Athens and sentenced to death by philosophy, and government records. drinking poison. His execution represents a turning point in the intellectual life of 3. Classical Period Writing (5th–4th century Athens, and his teachings deeply BCE) influenced Plato and Aristotle. Literary Works: During this period, Greece 3. The Conquest of Greece by Rome (146 BCE) saw the rise of some of the most influential literary and philosophical works, written in Attic  After the Battle of Corinth, Rome Greek, a dialect spoken in and around Athens. conquered Greece, but rather than Key figures such as Homer, Herodotus, Plato, and destroying Greek culture, the Romans Sophocles used this alphabet for epic poetry, adopted much of it. This allowed Greek history, and philosophical dialogues. philosophy, art, and literature to spread throughout the Roman Empire and Epigraphy: Public inscriptions on stone, known influence Western civilization for as epigraphy, were also common. These centuries. inscriptions documented laws, decrees, and public events, found on monuments, statues, and Additional Significant People: temples across the Greek world. 1. Homer (c. 8th century BCE) 4. Styles and Materials  As the author of The Iliad and The Odyssey, Papyri: Ancient Greeks primarily wrote on Homer is one of the most influential papyrus, a paper-like material made from reeds. figures in Western literature. His epics are Scrolls of papyrus were used for literary and not only important as literary works but philosophical texts. also as sources of Greek values, ideals, and historical narrative. Ink and Ostraca: Greeks also used ink and wrote on ostraca, which were shards of pottery, 2. Herodotus (c. 484–425 BCE) commonly used for casual notes and voting during political processes.  Known as the "Father of History," Herodotus wrote The Histories, a detailed Additional Events: account of the Greco-Persian Wars and other ancient events. His work remains 1. The Delian League (478 BCE) 2  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO one of the earliest and most significant records of ancient history. HELLENIC CIVILIZATION 3. Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) (OVERVIEW, GEOGRAPHY, AND TOPOGRAPHY,  A mathematician and philosopher, CONTRIBUTIONS BOTH MATERIAL AND NON-MATERIALS) Pythagoras is best known for the "Pythagorean theorem" in geometry. He Overview: 800 BCE TO 323 BCE also founded a religious and philosophical school that greatly  800 BCE (the rise of Greek city-states like influenced later Greek thought. Athens and Sparta) to 323 BCE, which marks the death of Alexander the Great. 4. Euclid (c. 300 BCE) Etymology  Known as the "Father of Geometry," Euclid's work Element is one of the most  The term "Hellenic" comes from the influential mathematical treatises in Greek word Ἕλλην (Hellēn), which history. His principles of geometry form means "Greek." It originates from the basis of the subject as taught today. Hellen, a mythical ancestor of the Greek people. The suffix -ic means 5. Thucydides (c. 460–395 BCE) "related to." So, Hellenic simply means  A historian and general, Thucydides is "related to the Greeks." most famous for his account of the Development of the Greek City-states: Peloponnesian War. Unlike Herodotus, Some of the City States: he focused on providing a critical, rational account of events, setting a  Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, standard for historical writing. Argos, Syracuse, Megara  A city-state, or polis, was the Conclusion: community structure of ancient In summary, ancient Greece’s contributions to Greece. democracy, philosophy, art, and science have left  poleis if plural, and there are an indelible mark on the modern world. From the approximately 1,000 city-states birth of political systems to advancements in thought and architecture, Greek civilization After the fall of the Mycenaeans, Greece saw a continues to influence our daily lives. Its legacy shift from large, palace-centered societies to endures, reminding us of the timeless power of smaller, independent communities. The innovation and culture. Mycenaean civilization declined due to factors such as invasions, internal conflicts, and possibly natural disasters this era was called the Greek Dark Age (c. 1100–800 BCE)  The formation of Greek city-states was a result of a combination of geography, economic development, political evolution, and cultural factors. By 800–500 BCE, the 3  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO city-states became the dominant form of sending poor people to settle new political organization in Greece, with each lands. polis developing its own unique identity and  Small Greek islands and areas governance system.Every Polis (city-state) around the Mediterranean were has an acropolis, this is where they take colonized. These colonies helped refuge, do religious activity, defend and manage population pressure and protect, and civic buildings (from the Greek opened new trade opportunities. words "akron" meaning "high" and "polis" This colonization created a new class meaning "city") Every Polis (city-state) has of people called Tyrants an agora this was a central public space in a city-state, serving as the heart of economic,  Tyrant: who became wealthy from social, and political activity. trade and commerce but did not have Citizens formal political power in their original city-states. They sometimes used their  In every Polis, there are citizens and wealth to influence or support their non-citizens colonies.The term "tyrant" in ancient  Citizens: Adult males who can vote Greece referred to individuals who and Adult females who cannot vote gained power through non-traditional  Non- Citizens: Children, Slaves, means, often outside the established Foreigners cannot be able to vote but political structures. they have certain rights, their job is to obey and protect the polis since they  Tyrants often played significant roles in are enjoying its protection. funding and supporting military and Military public infrastructure projects. They could provide mercenaries for  In every Polis, there are wars and contribute to building commonalities in Military essential public works like bridges,  The main unit is called Hoplite- dams, and sewers made up of infantrymen SPARTA  using a round shield, a heavy Political Structure: corselet of leather and metal, greaves (shin armour), an 8-foot pike for  Dual Kingship(Dual Monarchy) thrusting, and a 2-foot double- edged  Sparta had two hereditary kings sword from the Agiad and Eurypontid  Famous Strategy: Phalanx, it served families, responsible for military both offense and defense leadership and religious duties. Colonization  King Agis II and King Leonidas I  Poleis faced issues like Sparta has unique leaders wherein two kings overpopulation and Resource from 2 different royal families leads the Sparta scarcity, and it led to the rich Ephorate 4  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO  Five ephors, elected annually, held Greece either through invasion or significant power, overseeing the migration. Their military traditions kings and ensuring the laws were influenced early Spartan culture. followed. They also handled foreign Population Groups: diplomacy and judicial matters.  Overseeing the kings to make sure  Spartans (Spartiates): Full citizens they followed the laws. with military and political rights.  Handling foreign diplomacy, like  Helots: State-owned serfs or slaves, making treaties or alliances. mainly working the land.  Supervising court cases and judicial  Perioeci: Free non-citizens who worked matters. as craftsmen and traders, supplying goods and weapons. Gerousia  A council of 28 elders (over 60 years old) Society and Military Focus: and the two kings, responsible for legislative proposals and criminal justice.  focused on maintaining stability and military strength rather than  They discussed and proposed new colonization. They preferred to laws, and acted as a high court, conquer neighboring lands. dealing with important criminal cases. First Messenian War (743–725 BCE): Apella  Population growth and the fertile land of The assembly of male Spartan citizens voted on proposals made by the Messenia made it a prime target. The Messenians were less advanced, making them Gerousia and ephors but had no power an easier target. Sparta gained control over to debate them. parts of Messenia, enslaving many Messenians  Vote on laws and decisions proposed by as Helots. Frequent revolts led to continued the Gerousia and ephors. conflict.  However, they couldn’t debate or change proposals just vote "yes" or Second Messenian War (670 BCE) "no." Sparta’s expansion efforts led to conflict Location and Origins: with Argos. The First Battle of Hysiae started a series of conflicts. Argos encouraged Messenian  Sparta, also known as Lacedaemon, revolts, led by Aristomenes, who managed a was an ancient Greek city-state in brief campaign into Laconia. Sparta eventually southern Greece, in the region of regained control defeat Aristomenes. The Laconia. complete defeat of Messenia and increased  The Dorians, who settled in Sparta, reliance on Helots, solidifying Sparta’s dominance may have come from northern in the Peloponne. 5  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO 100 years, there was significant social Military Training: and political discontent, with Spartan Warriors: Known for their long hair and aristocrats often fighting among red cloaks. themselves. This tension between the wealthy aristocrats and the rest of the  Boys: education system gave meager population led to the need for reforms. rations and expected to become skilled at stealing food, among other survival Solon’s Reforms (594 BCE) skills.  An aristocrat and poet was Spartan men trained until the age of 20, at appointed by the aristocracy to which point they were deployed for military resolve the crises. While he service. By this age, they were also represented the upper class, he expected to marry and start a family. After made reforms to ease tensions completing 10 years of service, at age 30, they  Solon introduced the Seisachtheia were allowed to leave the barracks and live with ("shaking off of burdens"), which their wives, though they were still required to canceleded the debts of the poor father children. Retirement from military duties and prohibited debt slavery, where a came at the age of 60. person could be enslaved to pay off a debt. However, he did not  Girls: trained physically and in redistribute land or give political power household skills, preparing to produce to the common people, so many issues strong offspring. They engaged in remained unresolved. athletic competitions and could manage  He was anti-slavery but focused property. Married couples often lived mainly on economic reforms rather apart until men reached 30. than full political equality. Men who delayed marriage were publicly  he also expanded political participation shamed, while those who fathered multiple sons by allowing some commoners to serve could be rewarded. in lower offices, In preparation for marriage, Spartan women had their heads shaved; they kept their hair short after they wed. Married couples typically lived apart, as men under 30 were required to continue residing in communal barracks. In order to see their wives during this time, husbands had to sneak away at night. ATHENS  Athens originally started as a monarchy, but over time, power shifted to an aristocracy. For about 6  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO but power still largely remained with the  Members were chosen randomly aristocrats. from all eligible citizens, ensuring that both the rich and the poor Pisistratus’ Tyranny (546–527 BCE): could participate.  was a tyrant, a term which, at the  Cleisthenes broadened participation in time, referred to a ruler who seized governance, but it was eventually power without a legal claim, often limited to male citizens over 18 who with popular support could vote and participate in debates.  was a champion of the people, Women, slaves, and especially the poor. He provided loans foreigners were excluded. and redistributed land, taking it from Athenian Society and Education: the nobility and giving it to the poor, ensuring they could  Athenian women were largely become economically self-sufficient. secluded and confined to managing the  During his rule, Athens saw a cultural household and raising children. They boom, with the construction of temples had no political rights and could not and the promotion of the arts, own property independently. Their role particularly drama and was domestic literature.  unlike in Sparta, where women had more freedom and could own  While a tyrant, Pisistratus’ policies property. gave common people more influence, laying the groundwork for future  Athens placed great emphasis on democratic reforms. education for males, particularly in developing rhetoric and the art of Cleisthenes’ Democratic Reforms (508/507 debate. Boys were taught to be skilled BCE) public speakers, which was essential in  another aristocrat, is often credited as a democratic society where persuasive the "Father of Athenian speech was highly valued. Democracy." He pushed Athens further Ostracism in ancient Athens was a system toward democracy after the fall of where citizens could vote to send someone tyranny away from the city for 10 years. This was used  Cleisthenes divided Athens into 10 to prevent powerful people from becoming a tribes based on geography rather than threat to the democracy. wealth or family ties. Each tribe was responsible for electing 50 How it worked: Once a year, citizens could vote representatives, forming a Council of to decide if an ostracism should happen. If they 500. agreed, they would write the name of the  This body became the administrative person they wanted to exile on a piece of council, advising on foreign policy, pottery called an ostrakon. finances, and other matters. 7  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO Exile: If someone got 6,000 votes, they were Athens. The victory at Marathon sent away for 10 years, but they didn’t lose boosted Athenian confidence and their property or rights and could return later. inspired the modern marathon race (42 km). PERSIAN WAR  This was the first major battle between Greece and Persia. Athens  Athenian soldiers quickly responded  Large population. and ran from Athens to Marathon, winning the battle. The victory at  Strong naval power. Marathon boosted Athenian Sparta confidence and inspired the modern marathon race (42 km). After this  Focused on military strength, defeat, the Persians retreated. particularly on land. King Darius to Xerxes I Corinth  Xerxes decided to take revenge on the  Another major city-state Greeks, and it took him 10 years after alongside Athens and Sparta. King Darius died for it to have another  King Darius I, Persia expanded its battle power and captured parts of the 2nd Battle, Thermopylae (480 BCE) Greek city-states, particularly the Ionian cities along the coast of Asia  Xerxes assembled a large army, Minor. approximately 200,000 soldiers and 600  Ionian Revolt, rebelled against the ships, along with the famed Immortals. Persian Empire. The Role of King Leonidas wih his 300 Soldiers The revolt began when Ionian cities under  They captured on their way several Persian control rebelled against the Persian Greek city-states and marched Empire with the help also of other greek city toward Athens. states including athens. They received support  Athens was defeated in this battle from mainland Greek cities like Athens. knowing how big the troops of Although the revolt ultimately failed, it Xerxes were and was to be known as heightened tensions between Persia and Greece.  Following the Ionian Revolt, Persia viewed Athens as a significant threat and decided to attack them and other small Greek city-states. 1st Battle, Marathon (490 BCE)  Darius sent soldiers to Athens, landing in Marathon, a town near 8  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO the largest soldiers in the history in that time significant public works. This expansion and control over trade routes 3rd Battle, Salamis increased Athenian wealth but also created tensions with other city-states,  Athenian commander Themistocles, particularly Sparta, ultimately using strategic move by luring the contributing to the outbreak of the persian Peloponnesian War.  Athenian commander Themistocles Peloponnesian League played a crucial role in the naval battle at Salamis. He lured the  After the rise of Athenian power, the Persian ships into a narrow strait Peloponnesian League was formed in between the Greek mainland and response. Based in the Salamis. The confined space caused the Peloponnesus, it included key city- larger Persian fleet to become states like Sparta, Corinth, and entangled, resulting in significant losses Megara. The league aimed to for the Persians. counteract Athenian dominance and 4th Battle Plataea (479 BCE) protect its member states.  The league focused on land-based  Marked the final victory for the military strength to oppose Athens' Greeks against the Persians. naval power, reflecting the differing  After this victory, the Persians made no military strategies of the Greek city- further claims to conquest in states. Tensions between the Greece. The captured Greek city- states Peloponnesian League and the Delian were reclaimed with the help of other League escalated, leading to the Greek allies. outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, Delian League (478 BCE) which significantly altered the balance of power in ancient Greece.  After the Persian wars, Headquarters on the island of Delos.  over 150 city-states, with Athens as the leader. Aimed to defend against Persian aggression and liberate Greek states.  The league aimed to protect member states and liberate those under Persian control, reflecting a collective effort to secure Greek independence. Athens gradually transformed the league into an empire, especially after moving the treasury to the city, which enhanced its economic power and allowed for 9  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO 1st peloponnesian war (460-445 BCE) Athens to the port of Piraeus, ensuring secure supply lines  After the Persian War and the during decisive victory of Greece over the times of war. Athens also maintained a Persian Empire, the Greeks, led by powerful navy, consisting of 300 triple- Athens, won through their strategic banked galleys, or triremes. thinking and tactics. Athens then helped  By 460 BCE, Athens had pushed close other Greek city-states that to Corinth's borders, sparking several had been captured by the Persians in the battles between the two. Other Aegean region, which led to these city- members of the states joining the Delian League, Peloponnesian League sent troops to aid  with Athens as their leader. The league Corinth, but Sparta largely stayed out of grew to include over 300 city- states, all the conflict, only offering paying tribute to Athens minimal help. Eventually, Corinth with money, men, and resources. This successfully repelled Athens' wealth allowed Athens to grow stronger advances. and rival Sparta's power.  Around the same time, Sparta sent an  In the Peloponnesian League, army to support its ally, Doris, which Megara and Corinth had ongoing was under attack by Phocis (an disputes, largely due to their Athenian ally). The two forces interests in trade and maritime clashed at the Battle of Tanagra, commerce, especially around the where Sparta won but suffered heavy Isthmus of Corinth, a key trade losses. Despite this victory, route. Megara's position Sparta did not capitalize on it and threatened Corinth’s economic returned home. Shortly after, Athens dominance, increasing tensions. regrouped and defeated the Boeotian Sparta, having closer ties with forces at the Battle of Oenophyta, Corinth, supported them. Seeing an gaining control of most of Boeotia. opportunity, Athens sided with Megara, offering support in their dispute with Corinth and persuading Megara to align more closely with Athens.  Spies were active during this time, and Sparta learned of Athens' growing strength. Athens had built the Parthenon, a massive temple dedicated to Athena, and constructed the Long Walls, defensive fortifications connecting 10  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO  Meanwhile, Athens approached dismantle its fortifications to ease Argos, a city-state in the trade routes. Potidaea refused and Peloponnese that was not part of either sought Sparta’s help, which Sparta the Delian or Peloponnesian agreed to provide. Athens responded League. Argos was a traditional rival of by issuing the Megarian Sparta, which alarmed the Decree, banning Megara from using Spartans. Athenian-controlled ports, severely  Athens had also been campaigning in damaging Megara’s economy. This other regions, including Egypt, but angered Sparta, which believed Athens suffered a defeat there at the hands of wouldn’t stop its aggression until it the Persians, forcing them to scale back controlled all of Greece. their campaigns. To buy time, in 446  Megara, still part of the BCE, Athens sought a truce Peloponnesian League, appealed to with Sparta, resulting in the Thirty Years' Sparta to intervene and demand that Peace. Athens lift the Megarian  However, just ten years after signing Decree. Athens refused, and this led to the treaty, tensions resumed. A naval Sparta rallying its allies to prepare for clash occurred between war against Athens. Corcyra and Corinth over the city of Epidamnus. Corcyra sought Athenian 2nd Peloponnesian war or archidemian war support, angering Corinth. The two 431-44 BCE sides fought near Sybota, with Corinth initially dominating, but the  As Sparta grew tired of Athens’ dominance and efforts to control all of arrival of Athenian ships helped Corcyra Greece, Sparta gathered its men and avoid defeat. This battle further allies. Together with Thebes, Sparta heightened tensions launched an attack on between Athens and Corinth.  Sparta then accused Athens of Plataea, a city controlled by the breaking the Thirty Years' Peace, Delian League. This marked the especially after Athens overstepped its beginning of the Second boundaries by demanding that Peloponnesian War (also called the Potidaea, a Corinthian colony, Archidamian War), named after King Archidamos of Sparta, who was ruling at the time. 11  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO  Sparta regretted not being more aggressive in the First Peloponnesian  Despite the plague, which killed War, and they were determined not to Pericles and a large portion of the repeat the same mistakes. A population (up to 100,000 people), the series of deadly battles began, mainly Athenian navy continued its coastal involving hoplite soldiers using the raids. Meanwhile, Sparta besieged traditional phalanx formation. However, Plataea, a Delian League as warfare evolved, this strategy city, surrounding it with fortifications to became obsolete. Light infantry (fast- starve its citizens into moving troops engaging the enemy) surrendering. In 427 BCE, Plataea and cavalry (soldiers on horseback) surrendered after months of were introduced to create a mixed starvation. strategy with a broader scope in combat.  In 428 BCE, Sparta planned to attack  With a larger scope of warfare, Lesbos, but Athens preemptively armies now included slaves, foreign secured the island. A revolt in Mytilene soldiers, and mercenaries. However, led Athens to consider executing the due to a lack of experience and male citizens and enslaving the rest, training, these forces suffered heavy but with Sparta approaching, Athens casualties. Each year, Sparta and the only executed the revolt leaders and Peloponnesian League attacked the repelled the Spartans. Delian League, aiming to cause as much  In 422 BCE, Brasidas, a Spartan leader, damage as possible. They burned crops, moved to Amphipolis to take knocked down smaller fortifications, and disrupted supply chains. Despite this, Athens managed to maintain its supply lines by sea due to its naval superiority.  The Spartans hoped to lure the Athenians out of their city walls, believing that a land battle would favor Sparta. The Athenian leader, Pericles, anticipated this strategy and advised the Athenians to remain inside their walls. However, in 430 BCE, a plague broke out in Athens, causing severe losses among the military and citizens. The Spartans halted their invasion to avoid the plague, while Athenians blamed Sparta, Egypt, and Africa for poisoning their food and trading infected goods. 12  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO control of the region. At the same time, Cleon, an Athens' protection against the Athenian leader, was also in Amphipolis, leading increasingly aggressive armies of to a confrontation between their forces. Both Syracuse. General Alcibiades seized leaders were killed in battle, which significantly this opportunity to initiate a massive impacted the war, as they were both respected military campaign, pushing forward commanders in their respective factions. with 100 triremes, 6,000 hoplites, and  Following this, Nicias, an Athenian 1,200 cavalry. However, before the general, facilitated a peace expedition commenced, Alcibiades agreement known as the Peace of faced baseless accusations of Nicias in 421 BCE. This treaty granted a disrespecting the gods, allegedly 50-year peace between the Delian and orchestrated by his enemies within the Peloponnesian leagues, aiming to Athenian government. restore the status quo in Greece and  Finding refuge in Sparta, Alcibiades return territories to their original provided the Spartans with owners. However, not everyone was intelligence on Athenian military pleased with the agreement, as several tactics and plans. Under the new commanders were unwilling to return commander Nicias, Athens launched their captured territories. its attack on Syracuse, aiming to  With Athens under the leadership of capture the city and its waters. The Alcibiades, an alliance was formed battle lasted for two years, but in 413 between Athens, Argos, Elis, and BCE, Spartan forces arrived to aid Mantinea. However, many anticipated Syracuse, that the peace would not last long. Despite the 50-year treaty, hostilities resumed within six years, between 421 and 415 BCE, with small skirmishes erupting across Greece, signaling the second phase of the Peloponnesian War. Spartans, having just returned from a campaign in Thrace, faced an uprising in Argos in 418 BCE. Led by Agis II, they launched an attack against the rebels in Argos, decisively defeating them. The Spartans killed the population of entire towns and villages for resisting their power.  In 415 BCE, Athens reignited the conflict by launching an invasion of Syracuse on the island of Sicily. The city of Segesta sought 13  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO breaking the Athenian blockade led by  Athens responded by demanding the general Gylippus. The Spartans more tribute from its allies in the trapped the Athenian ships and Delian League, sparking revolts. In decimated their fleet. The Delian League 411 BCE, democracy in Athens was sent reinforcements to Sicily, but these overthrown by an oligarchy, the efforts were ineffective. The Council of the Four Hundred, led by Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, Antiphon, Peisander, and Phrynichus. ultimately defeated the Athenians, This regime was short- lived,After the forcing them to retreat back to Greece. Council of the Four Hundred collapsed,  Nicias was captured and executed by it was replaced by the Council of the the Spartans, with approximately Five Thousand, a broader oligarchy. 30,000 Athenian soldiers killed Democracy was restored in 410 BCE.. during the conflict. Despite this setback, However, after Athens' defeat in 404 Athens continued to fight, launching a BCE, it was again overthrown by the series of raids along the Peloponnesian Thirty coast, while Alcibiades continued to Tyrants, a harsh oligarchy led by advise the Spartans. Critias and Theramenes, which ruled  Though weakened, Athens continued until 403 BCE. by the Thirty Tyrants, a to fight, launching raids along the harsh oligarchy led by Critias and Peloponnesian coast. Meanwhile, Theramenes, which ruled until 403 Alcibiades, an Athenian who had BCE. defected to Sparta, advised the  By 405 BCE, Sparta, with Persian Spartans to build a fort at Dekelia, funding, built a massive fleet of 200 disrupting Athens’ food supply. Sparta triremes and defeated Athens at the also sought help from Persia, which Battle of Aegospotami, destroying 17 agreed to fund Athenian ships and capturing Sparta’s naval fleet in exchange for 3,000 soldiers. Athens was forced to recognition of Persian control over surrender, the Delian League was Greek cities in Asia Minor. disbanded, and Sparta imposed strict terms. Athens had to tear down its Long Walls, reduce its navy to only 12 ships, and pay tribute to Sparta. 14  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO Sparta's Downfall aimed to capture the city, but they faced a determined defense from the Thebans.  After their victory over Athens in the The conflict ended disastrously for the Peloponnesian War, Sparta emerged as Spartans when Lysander was killed, the dominant power in Greece. For a leading to their defeat. This loss provided brief period, Sparta controlled much of a significant morale boost for the anti- the region and imposed its rule over Spartan alliance, which included Thebes, other city-states. However, their harsh Athens, Corinth, and Argos. and authoritarian rule sparked unrest and rebellions. The other Greek city- The Battle of Coronea (394 BCE) states, once rivals, grew resentful of took place a year after the Battle of Sparta’s dominance. Haliartus in Boeotia. In this engagement,  By 395 BCE, a coalition formed Spartan forces, commanded by King against Sparta. Athens, Thebes, Agesilaus II, confronted a coalition of Corinth, and others joined forces, Theban and Athenian troops. Despite leading to the Corinthian War (395– being heavily outnumbered, the Spartans 387 BCE). Although Sparta managed to achieved a decisive victory, hold its ground, cracks in its power demonstrating their military prowess began to show. The turning point came and reaffirming their strength on land. in 371 BCE at the Battle of Leuctra, This win allowed Sparta to reassert its where Thebes dealt a crushing defeat to control over central Greece the Spartans. This defeat not only ended Sparta’s military dominance but also shattered The war ended with the King’s its reputation as an invincible force. Peace in 387 BCE, favoring Sparta and From this point ensuring Persian dominance in Asia onward, Sparta's influence steadily Minor while granting autonomy to other declined, and it never regained its Greek city-states. former power. Corinthian War (395–387 BCE) The Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE) was a conflict between Sparta and a was a conflict between Sparta and coalition of Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Thebes, taking place near the village of and Argos, with Persian support. It Leuctra in Boeotia. Following the began due to widespread resentment establishment of a new democracy in toward Sparta's dominance after the Thebes, the city elected four Boeotarchs Peloponnesian War. with the intention of reconstituting the Boeotian League, which had been disbanded by Sparta. During this period, The Battle of Haliartus (395 BCE), Thebes formed an alliance with Athens, occurring near the city of Haliartus in which was unhappy with Spartan Boeotia. In this battle, the Spartans, treatment of Plataea. commanded by the general Lysander, 15  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO When it came to swearing an The Rise of Macedon oath to respect a treaty, Sparta refused to allow Epaminondas to swear on  From 350 to 325 BCE, Macedon was a behalf of the entire Boeotian League, relatively weak and overlooked insisting he could only represent kingdom to the north of Greece. Thebes. This diplomatic standoff However, when Philip II became king in escalated tensions between the two 359 BCE, Macedon’s fortunes changed powers. Seeing an opportunity to dramatically. Philip was a reassert its authority, Spartan King brilliant military leader and strategist Cleombrotus I led an army into Boeotia. who reformed the Macedonian The Spartans took an unexpected route, army, professionalizing his troops and capturing the fortress of Creusis and transforming them into one of the several Theban warships before most formidable forces in the reaching Leuctra. region,and with sarissas (20 feet long, spear usage in phalanx) Philip used Faced with this threat, the six diplomacy and formed several Boeotian generals debated whether to marriages one of them was Olympias, engage the Spartans in battle. the mother of Alexander Epaminondas, a key advocate for  Philip II attacked Amphipolis because it confrontation, convinced the council to was located near the river fight after a seventh general arrived in Strymon, which was crucial for support of his stance. Despite being controlling trade routes and accessing outnumbered and uncertain about the the silver mines in the region. Its loyalty of their allies, the Thebans capture would significantly enhance decided to confront the Spartan forces, Macedonia's economic and military marking the beginning of the battle. strength.  Philip besieged the city, which The Theban forces, led by eventually fell. Amphipolis sought Epaminondas, utilized innovative tactics, help from Athens, and Athens sent particularly the oblique formation, two ambassadors to negotiate with concentrating their strongest troops on Philip. He gave them uncertain the left flank to rout the Spartan army. assurances of peace. This engagement resulted in significant casualties for Sparta, including the death of King Cleombrotus I and many elite hoplites, which dealt a heavy blow to Spartan morale and military prestige. The victory at Leuctra marked a critical turning point in Greek history, effectively ending Sparta’s dominance over the Greek city-states and elevating Thebes as a major power. 16  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO  As the Macedonians ramped the walls,  In just a few years, Philip doubled brutal attacks ensued, resulting in the size of his kingdom and rape, enslavement, and massacre. increased its wealth. However, once Philip gained Third sacred war possession of the city, he became lenient. He exiled those in  In ancient Greece, Phocis was a city- state that housed Delphi, a opposition while allowing the rest to sanctuary dedicated to Apollo and the remain and function on a day-to-day site of the famous oracle. Delphi was basis under Macedonian law. not governed solely by Phocis but was  The Triple Alliance was formed by overseen by the Delphic Amphictyony, groups from neighboring regions in a league comprising various city-states. response to Philip II's expansionist policies, creating a coalition aimed at  In 357 BCE, Thebes dominated this countering Macedonian league and sought to punish Phocis for violating sacred land by failing to pay a dominance in northern Greek fine for previous territories. The alliance included: transgressions. Thebes threatened  Illyrians - King Grabus war if Phocis refused to comply.  Phylomilus, the leader of Phocis,  Paonians - King Lipaeus advocated for the capture of Delphi. He  Thracians - Sintreparis (a leader assembled a large army and marched controlling a portion of the Thracian on the sanctuary of Apollo, destroying tribes) the stones that recorded Phocis’s  General Parmenio was sent to confront verdict and constructing imposing the Illyrians. After a year of triumphs, limestone walls. Philip received news of Parmenio's Phylomilus promised not to touch the defeat by the Illyrians, as well as the treasure within the sanctuary until he birth of his son, Alexander, who would was recognized as its leader. The later become known as Alexander the Spartans supported his actions, Great. motivated by their own grievances against Thebes from an invasion 25 years prior, while Athens also backed 17  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO Phylomilus due to their general anti- for the winter. He stated that he was Theban foreign policy. not fleeing but rather regrouping, like a  Thebes called for a Sacred War, which ramp pulling back to charge harder. garnered support from many city-  The following summer, Philip returned states. However, Phylomilus, aware of with a new army, consisting of 20,000 his enemies, planned to use the infantry and 3,000 cavalry, ready to accumulated wealth in the temple to equal Anomarcos's forces. Seeing an hire a substantial number of opportunity to weaken Philip, Athens mercenaries. He attacked first, aided Anomarcos with additional believing that defeating his foes one by soldiers, setting the stage for a one would secure his victory. significant confrontation. Unfortunately, his success was short- lived. The Delphic League launched a Battle of the crocus field counterattack, defeating Phylomilus and  In 353 BCE, the two armies met at the injuring him. Fearing capture, he city of Pegase, resulting in a voluntarily leaped to his death from the confrontation known as the Battle of mountains. Crocus Field. Although the battle lasted  Anomarcos, Phylomilus’s second-in- only a day, it was deemed one of the command, managed to rally the deadliest encounters in ancient Greece. remaining troops and retreat to Both Macedon and Thessaly emerged Delphi. Instead of surrendering, victorious, but Phocis suffered heavy Anomarcos encouraged the Phocians losses, with to continue the fight. He doubled the 6,000 soldiers killed, including size of his military and eliminated his Anomarcos, and an additional 3,000 opponents, claiming their wealth. taken prisoner  Larissa, a city-state allied with the  In the aftermath, Athens sought a Delphic League and Macedonia, peace settlement with Philip II. Philip sought protection from Philip II of received their overtures graciously Macedon. Philip marched into and sent ambassadors to Athens to Thessaly, intent on attacking Phocis discuss terms. The Athenians were but faced two defeats and retreated taken aback when 18  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO they arrived in Macedon to find not This event was the end of the greek city- states only their representatives present but or the polis also delegates from Phocis, Alexander The Great Sparta, Thebes, Thessaly, and others  Alexander the Great was the son of that are involved at the sacred war Philip II of Macedon and Olympias. At  Leading the negotiations, Philip the age of 13, he tamed a horse listened to both sides without named Bucephalus, which no one showing any bias. He strategically else could ride, impressing his father. stationed a small force at Aristotle served as his tutor and Thermopylae, the only passage into became a significant influence in Southern Greece, effectively Alexander’s education. controlling the route. As the Athenians returned home, they discovered that  Even before Philip had the dream to conquer Persia, in 336 BCE, at the age Philip had already claimed the pass, placing Central and Southern Greece of 46, Philip was assassinated under mysterious circumstances. Following under his influence. this, at just 20 years old, Alexander was  Philip announced that the fate of made king. Even before his ascension, Phocis would be determined not by he had already demonstrated him, but by the Amphictionic League, leadership; he was in charge of the a council representing cavalry and had been responsible for various Greek states. The terms protecting the imposed on Phocis were harsh, borders and quelling rebellions, marking a significant turning point in the including those instigated by Persia. region's power dynamics. By the time he turned 40, Philip stood on the brink  After King Philip's death, several of complete control over Greek states, such as Thebes, Greece. His reign was characterized by Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian monumental achievements; he had tribes, rebelled. Upon hearing the solidified his kingdom and laid the news, Alexander swiftly gathered groundwork for Macedon’s dominance 3,000 cavalry and marched south to in the ancient world, creating a legacy confront the rebels. In Thessaly, he that would resonate for generations to surprised their army by leading his come. 19  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO troops over Mount Ossa, forcing the temporary peace to Greece. He then set Thessalians to surrender and join his off for his Asian campaign, leaving forces. He then moved to Antipater in charge as regent. Thermopylae, where he was recognized  Taking over the invasion project of as the leader of the Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Amphictyonic League, and continued on Hellespont in 334 BCE with to Corinth. Athens, fearing approximately 48,100 soldiers, retribution, sued for peace, which including 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of Alexander granted. 120 ships with crews numbering  With ambitions of creating a larger 38,000, drawn from Macedon and empire, Alexander focused on various Greek city-states, securing his northern borders by mercenaries, and feudally raised suppressing revolts in 335 BCE. Starting soldiers from Thrace, Paeonia, and from Amphipolis, he defeated the Illyria. He showed his intent to conquer Thracians at Mount Haemus and then the entirety of the Persian Empire by marched into the territory of the Triballi, throwing a spear into Asian soil, defeating them near the Lyginus River. declaring that he accepted Asia as a gift He crossed the Danube at night, from the gods. This act demonstrated surprising the Getae tribe and forcing his eagerness to fight, contrasting with them to retreat. Alexander also dealt his father's preference for diplomacy. with revolts by Illyrian leaders Cleitus Battle of the Granicus and King Glaukias, defeating them and securing his northern frontier.  On May 334 BCE, the Battle of the Granicus was the first of three major  While Alexander was campaigning in battles fought between Alexander the the north, Thebes and Athens Great of Macedon and the rebelled. He quickly moved south, and Persian Achaemenid Empire. The battle while most cities hesitated, Thebes took place on the road from Abydus to chose to fight. Alexander crushed the Dascylium, at the crossing of the resistance, destroyed Thebes, and Granicus in the Troad region, now called divided its land among neighboring cities. the Biga River in Turkey. This defeat intimidated Athens and brought 20  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO During the battle, Alexander broke his causing the Persian king to flee. As lance but continued fighting, killing Darius escaped, the Persian army Persian leaders and surviving multiple panicked and retreated, and attacks. The Macedonian cavalry, using Alexander's forces pursued and long spears, slaughtered many fleeing Persians, overpowered the Persian forces, and securing a decisive victory. Alexander eventually turned his Siege in Tyre attention to the Greek mercenaries,  As Alexander approached Tyre, he defeating them decisively. Alexander found the city well-prepared for a siege. defeated the field army of the The Tyrians had fortified their defenses Persian of Asia Minor, forcing the and were confident in their ability to Persians on the defensive in the cities withstand any attack. that remained under their control in the Undeterred, Alexander laid siege to the region. city, employing various military tactics, Battle of Issus including constructing a causeway to  At the Battle of Issus in November 333 bridge the gap between the mainland BCE, Alexander led his Companion and the island city. cavalry on the right flank while This ambitious engineering feat aimed Parmenion commanded the Thessalian to cut off Tyre’s supply lines and allow cavalry on the left. The his forces to storm the city. After Persian King, Darius III, positioned his months of intense fighting, during cavalry near the coast and his infantry, which Alexander faced fierce including Greek resistance, Tyre fell in July 332 BCE. mercenaries, along the river. The The siege was brutal, and many Tyrians Persians launched their attack, focusing perished or were enslaved. on Parmenion’s forces. Alexander’s  After capturing Tyre, Alexander found phalanx initially struggled, taking heavy the family of Darius among the spoils, losses while crossing the river, and the including Darius's mother, Sisygambis, Macedonian left flank was under heavy and his daughters, pressure from the Persian cavalry. Stateira II and Drypetis. This victory not However, Alexander led a only provided Alexander with a counterattack with his Hypaspists, significant political advantage but also breaking through the Persian lines. He served to humiliate Darius, charged directly at Darius, 21  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO further asserting Alexander's dominance three negotiation messages to in the region. Alexander. Conquest in Egypt The Negotiations:  In 332 BCE, Alexander moved to the  First Attempt: After the Battle of Issus, Middle East, taking over Egypt, which Darius sent a letter demanding that was under Persian rule at the time. He Alexander withdraw from Asia and was welcomed as a release his prisoners, offering a ransom liberator by the Egyptians, who were for the captives. However, the tone of unhappy with Persian control. This local the letter was offensive, and Alexander support legitimized his conquest, and refused the demands. the Egyptians made him their pharaoh.  Second Attempt: After Alexander In April 331 BCE, Alexander founded captured Tyre, Darius offered a more Alexandria after taking control of Egypt generous deal, proposing marriage to from the his daughter, land west of the Halys Persians. River, and a ransom for his captured  He intended to create a large Greek city soldiers. However, Alexander concealed on the Egyptian coast that would bear this letter and did not accept the offers, his name. He chose the site of leading Darius to prepare for another Alexandria and planned to build a battle. causeway to the nearby island of Pharos, creating two natural harbors.  Third Attempt: Following However, Alexander left Egypt shortly Alexander's campaign in Egypt, after founding the city and never Darius made his most generous offer yet, returned during his lifetime. praising Alexander’s treatment of his Battle of Gaugamela mother, offering territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the  The Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE was the third and final battle between Alexander and Darius III, marking the decisive blow to the Achaemenid Empire. The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river Bumodus, north of Arbela (modern-day Erbil, in Iraqi Kurdistan). Despite being heavily outnumbered, Alexander's forces emerged victorious due to superior tactics and clever usage of light infantry. This victory led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and another fleet of Darius III, who sent 22  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO Persian Empire, marriage to one of his  In 325 BCE, during the Battle of the daughters, and a ransom of Hydaspes, Alexander faced the 30,000 talents. Although his general Paurava king, Porus. Despite being Parmenion suggested accepting the outnumbered, as King Porus had an offer, Alexander ultimately refused, impressive army that included declaring that there could only be one elephants, Alexander won the battle king of Asia. He urged Darius to through his tactics and strategy. surrender or face him in battle to  After the battle, Porus was captured decide who would rule. and brought before Alexander. When Alexander asked how he wished to be  After his decisive victory at the treated, Porus boldly replied, "I Battle of Gaugamela in October 331 wish to be treated like a king." This BCE, Alexander the Great turned his response resonated with Alexander, sights toward Babylon, one of the most who admired his bravery. Rather than important and wealthy cities of the showing cruelty, Alexander chose to Achaemenid Empire. Following the show respect. He reinstated Porus as the battle, Darius III fled, leaving the ruler of his territory, Persian forces in disarray and Babylon even granting him additional lands to vulnerable. As Alexander approached govern. Babylon, he was met  Although Alexander still wanted to with little resistance. The city's conquer all of India, his troops were inhabitants were eager for a change in exhausted and tired of battles. As the leadership after years of Persian rule. great leader he was, he listened to his They welcomed Alexander as a liberator, men and halted the campaign. believing he would bring a new era of DARIUS III prosperity. His reputation as a fair and just ruler preceded him, and many  What happened to Darius was that hoped he would respect their customs after all his fleeing, he was killed by his and traditions. men due to his perceived cowardice. Conquest to India Later, Alexander found his body and, out of respect for him as a king, gave  After years, Alexander decided to him a royal funeral and executed target India. Many tribes those who had killed surrendered to him without a fight, and in exchange, he once again granted them many freedoms. 23  2S-SOC 03 World History 1 The Cradles of Civilization (GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION) Prepared by: LALUAN | GRANDE | HIPONIA | MAGNO | JURIDICO him. This act highlighted what made Alexander and control, eventually leading to its the Great who he was. fragmentation into several Thus, Alexander became the king of Persia, the Hellenistic kingdoms. pharaoh of Egypt, and the king of Macedon.  Ptolemaic Kingdom, Named after Ptolemy I Soter, this kingdom encompassed Egypt and parts of the  To secure his hold on Persia, Alexander granted eastern Mediterranean. a large amount of freedom to the Persians to govern themselves in exchange for loyalty. This,  Seleucid Empire, Named after Seleucus I Nicator, however, did not sit well with the Macedonians. this empire covered a vast area from the eastern To unite both factions, Alexander devised a plan Mediterranean to parts of India, to marry his generals to Persian  Antigonid Dynasty, Founded by Antigonus I princesses. Monophthalmus, this dynasty ruled over Macedonia and parts of Greece, and with this, it Wedding of Susa ends the Hellenic civilization or period.  This event was known as the Wedding of Susa in 324 BCE, where a mass wedding took place, and Alexander himself wed a Persian princess named Roxana. This decision led to strong opposition from the Macedonians, who threatened Alexander with mutiny. In response, he threatened to replace them with Persian officials if they did not stop their dissent. Eventually, the Macedonians relented, and in an attempt to reconcile them, Alexander hosted a banquet for all officials from Macedon, Greece, and Persia. As a result, Greek culture significantly influenced Persia and even extended to India. Alexander’s Death  On June 10 or 11, 323 BCE, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon at the age of 32. The cause of death remains a subject of debate among historians and scholars, with various theories ranging from natural causes such as fever, possibly due to typhoid or malaria, to poison. His death marked the end of his empire, which had spread from Greece to the edges of India. Following his death, his empire faced significant challenges in terms of governance 24