Research Proposal and Paper Components PDF

# Steps of Writing a Research Proposal 1. **Title** * Accurate * Concise, clear, and specific * Short (10-12 words) 2. **Introduction** * Background Information 3. **Objective** * Relevant * Specific * Measurable * Achievable * Time-bound # Components of a Resea...

# Steps of Writing a Research Proposal 1. **Title** * Accurate * Concise, clear, and specific * Short (10-12 words) 2. **Introduction** * Background Information 3. **Objective** * Relevant * Specific * Measurable * Achievable * Time-bound # Components of a Research Paper 1. **Title or Cover Page** * Include research title * Name of the authors with their other titles and positions * Journal or Conference 2. **Abstract** * 100-250 words * Introduction: What? (Description of the problem) * Objective: Why? * Methods: Where? Place, study, and how the study was conducted * Results: * Conclusions * Recommendations * No references, tables, figures, or abbreviations 3. **Introduction** * Background Information * Significance and Explanation * State the Objectives 4. **Material and Methods** * The bulk of the paper * Descriptive, using the past verb tense * Divided parts: * Study Design * Subjects (Methods of sampling, sample size, inclusion, and exclusion) * Statistical Methods * Ethical Considerations * Define variables and data 5. **Results** * The core of the paper, using tables, graphs, and a discussion of the findings. Do not include discussion of the findings, methods of data, or data. 6. **Discussion** * Should be written with present verb tense * Explanation of unexpected findings, clinical and importance. 7. **Conclusions** * Should include major findings, significance. 8. **Recommendations** * May involve methods, procedures, or approaches * Further work or action 9. **References** * The body of the next part of your paper, including the bibliographic list * BA's: Assess, Ask, Acquire, Appraise, Apply # Types of Epidemiological Study 1. **Observational Studies** * **Descriptive Study** (personal, place, time) * Case report * Case series * Correlation study * Cross-sectional study * **Analytic Study** * Case control study * Cohort Study * Cross-sectional study 2. **Experimental** * Preventive trails * Clinical trails * Population trails ## Cross-sectional Study (Prevalence Study) * **Not suitable for studying rare or highly fatal diseases or diseases with a short duration of expression** * Measures prevalence * **Advantages** * Measure population sample characteristics * Determine disease prevalence. * Can study multiple risk factors and multiple diseases. * **Disadvantages** * Show associations but don't indicate casual relations ## Retrospective Study (Case Control study) * Persons who are diagnosed as having a disease are compared with persons who don't have the disease. * **Advantages** * Number of subjects can be small * Low cost. * Results can be obtained relatively quickly. * **Disadvantages** * Bias ## Prospective Study (Cohort Study) * **Advantages** * Lack a bias * Permits calculation of incidence, rate, relative risk, attributable risk * Additional diseases * **Disadvantages** * Large number * Long followup periods * Very costly * Attrition * **Uses:** Exposure is rare # Definition of Data- * A set of values, numerical description # Types of Data 1. **Constant** (not change) 2. **Variables** (can change) # Types of Variables * **Quantitative** * **Discrete** * Scores * Sizes * Weight * **Continuous** * Measurement * Integer figures or fractions * Weight, height * Blood cell, number * Blood Sugar * **Categorical** * **Qualitative** * Names * Smell * Colors * **Ordinal** * Could be arranged indefinitely * Educational Level * Socio-economic * **Nominal** * Cannot be put in any order * Sex, bloodgroup # Methods of Data Collection 1. Historical Records 2. Experiments 3. Conducting Surveys * **Comprehensive Survey:** Every number in the community, small community. * **Sample Survey:** The result can be generalized. # Sampling * Is mandatory in research (small community) * **Criteria of sample:** * Sufficiently large * From the community * Represents all individuals and categories * **Types of sample:** * **Non-Probability or Non-Random Samples** (purposive, quota, convenience sample) * **Probability or Random Samples** (Pre-test or pilot study) * **Disadvantage of non-probability** * Probability of selection can't be determined. * Sample mean can't be estimated. * Results can't be generalized. * **Probability or Random Samples** * **Types:** * **Simple Random Sample** (coins, balls) * **Advantage:** Considered the basic type of probability * **Disadvantage:** Construction of the frame maybe difficult, is not suitable for a population. * **Systematic Random Sample:** Well distributed over various * **Advantage:** Ease of selection. * **Disadvantage:** Difficulty in constructing, sometimes. * **Stratified Random Sample:** Represents all the types in a community * **It is the best type of probability sample** * **Multistage Random Sample:** Starts from large to small * **Sample if there is a very large population** * **Cluster Sample:** All population (were chosen en toto) # Types of Tables 1. **Simple:** Single characteristic 2. **Complex:** Two or more characteristics 3. **Frequency Table:** How often something happens. # Type of Graphs 1. **Bar Graph** (Categorical/qualitative data) * **Types:** Simple, Complex, Component 3. **Histogram** (Continuous quantitative variables) 4. **Pie chart** (Categorical qualitative data) 5. **Line Graph** (Show the trend of available over time) # Mathematical Calculation of Data ## Measures of Central tendencies (Location of average) 1. **Mean (X)** 2. **Median** 3. **Mode (Mo)** 4. **Mid-range** ## Measures of dispersion, scatter, or deviation 1. **Range** 2. **Standard Deviation** * **Mean (Arithmetic Mean) (The Best)** * Considered as the balance point of distribution * **The Mean = Summation of observations/Number of observations** * **Advantages of Mean** * It is the best measure of central tendency. * It doesn't need organization of data. * It provides much information. * It is used in statistical analysis of quantitative variables. * **Disadvantages of Mean** * It is affected by extreme observations. * **Median** * It is the middle observation after ranking the observations in an ascending or descending manner. * Needs arrangement/organization of data. * **The Mode:** The most frequent observation. * **The mid-range:** (The smallest observation + the largest observation) / 2 * **The Range:** The difference between the highest (maximum) and lowest (minimum) scores. * **Standard Deviation (SD)** * A measure which describes how much individuals measurements differ on the average. * It is a good representation of dispersion. * **Advantages of SD** * Uses all observations. * It is a good representation of dispersion. * It is an absolute measure of scatter. * **Disadvantages of SD** * Is very sensitive to outliers. ## Shapes of Frequency Distributions 1. **Positively skewed** - Right 2. **Negatively skewed** - Left ## The Common Shapes of Frequency Distribution * Normal * Right-skewed * Left-skewed * Bimodal ## Characteristics of the Normal Distribution Curve 1. **It is bell-shaped.** The mean which is located at the midpoint of the base 2. **Having its top at the mean, which is located at the midpoint of the base.** 3. **It diminishes into small values as you move to the left and right of the mean.** 4. **It approaches infinity.** 5. **It has a point of inflection on both sides of the center** 6. **These points of inflection occur at one standard deviation above and one SD below the mean.** * The mean = The median = The mode ## Definition of Clinical trials * It is an experimental study that is designed to compare the therapeutic benefit of two or more treatments (new drug or vaccine with a traditional treatment). * **Aim:** To compare new drug or vaccine with a traditional one according to its: * Cost-effectiveness * Effectiveness * Safety * **The Clinical trails are prospective studies with two differences:** * **Prospective study:** * Subjects select themselves for exposure or non-exposure to the factor. * **Clinical Study:** * No blinding is applied * Blinding is applied * **Blinding definition:** Keep people unaware of the treatment group. * **Types of binding:** * Single blind (subject under investigation) * Double blind (subject and data collector/researcher) * Triple blind (subject, investigator, data analysts) * **Phases of a clinical trial:** * **Preclinical (Laboratory studies)** * **Phase 1 (Safety)** * **Phase 2 (Safety and Dosing)** * **Phase 3 (Safety, Efficacy, and effectiveness)** * **Phase 4 (Post marketing safety and efficacy)** * **Stages of clinical trials:** * Lab studies * Human safety * Expanded safety * Efficacy and safety * **Problems encountered in clinical trails:** * Expenses * Sample size * Ethical issues * Long period of followup * Non-compliance