Aviation Information Processing and Attention and Perception (9.2.3-4) PDF

Information Processing and Attention and Perception (9.2.3-4) Learning Objectives 9.2.3 Describe the means by which humans receive and process information (Level 2). 9.2.4 Explain attention and recall the different types of attention and how they affect perception and information proc...

Information Processing and Attention and Perception (9.2.3-4) Learning Objectives 9.2.3 Describe the means by which humans receive and process information (Level 2). 9.2.4 Explain attention and recall the different types of attention and how they affect perception and information processing (Level 2). Summary The previous sections have described the basic functions and limitations of two of the senses used by aircraft maintenance engineers in the course of their work. This section examines the way the information gathered by the senses is processed by the brain. The limitations of the human information processing system are also considered. Information processing is the process of receiving information through the senses, analysing it and making it meaningful. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 64 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Information Processing An Information Processing Model Information processing can be represented as a model. This captures the main elements of the process, from receipt of information via the senses, to outputs such as decision-making and actions. One such model is shown in the gure below. Wickens' model of human information processing (adapted from Wickens & Hollands, 2000) Wickens' model of human information processing 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 65 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Sensory Receptors and Short-Term Sensory Memory Physical stimuli are received via the sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and stored for a very brief period of time in sensory stores (sensory memory). Visual information is stored for up to half a second in iconic memory and sounds are stored for slightly longer (up to 2 seconds) in echoic memory. This enables us to remember a sentence as a sentence, rather than merely as an unconnected string of isolated words, or a lm as a lm, rather than as a series of disjointed images. Image by Wren Handman from Pixabay Visual information is stored for up to half a second in iconic memory 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 66 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Attention and Perception Attention Having detected information, our mental resources are concentrated on speci c elements. This is attention. Attention can be thought of as the concentration of mental effort on sensory or mental events. Although attention can move very quickly from one item to another, it can only deal with one item at a time. Types of Attention Attention can take the form of: Selective attention Divided attention Focused attention Sustained attention. Image by Mimi Thian on Unsplash Attention can be thought of as the concentration of mental effort Selective attention occurs when a person is monitoring several sources of input, with greater attention being given to one or more sources which appear more important. A person can be consciously attending to one source while still sampling other sources in the background. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 67 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Psychologists refer to this as the ‘cocktail party effect’ whereby you can be engrossed in a conversation with one person, but your attention is temporarily diverted if you overhear your name mentioned at the other side of the room, even though you were not intentionally listening in to other people ’s conversations. Distraction is the negative side of selective attention. Divided attention is common in most work situations, where people are required to do more than one thing at the same time. Usually, one task suffers at the expense of the other, and more so if they are similar in nature. This type of situation is also sometimes referred to as time sharing. Focused attention is merely the skill of focusing one’s attention upon a single source and avoiding distraction. Sustained attention, as its name implies, refers to the ability to maintain attention and remain alert over long periods of time, often on one task. Research has been carried out in connection with driving trains, or long-distance trucks, and monitoring radar displays, but associated research has also concentrated upon inspection tasks. Factors Affecting Attention Attention is in uenced by arousal level and stress. This can improve attention or damage it, depending on the circumstances. Image by uniliderpromocion from Pixabay Attention is in uenced by arousal level and stress 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 68 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Perception Perception involves the organisation and interpretation of sensory data in order to make it meaningful. Good perception involves discarding irrelevant data and transforming data into information. Perception requires existing knowledge and experience to know what data to keep and what to discard, and how to associate the data in a meaningful manner. Perception can be de ned as the process of assembling sensations into a useable mental representation of the world. It creates faces, melodies, works of art and illusions out of the raw material arriving to the brain from the human senses. An example of the perceptual process is when a person looks at a speci c object. The image formed on the retina at the back of the eye is actually inverted and two dimensional, yet we see the world the right way up and in three dimensions. The perception of an identical object can vary from person to person. Dr. Jim Taylor The perception of an identical object can vary from person to person 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 69 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Situational Awareness A key form of perception is the ability to gather information and determine where you are in space and time and, importantly, what is going on around you and what is likely to happen next. This is called situational awareness and is also discussed in more depth later in these notes. A simple way of describing situational awareness is that you have an understanding of: Where you have been Where you are Where you are going. When driving a car, operating any type of machinery, or navigating a busy place, situational awareness is critical. A lack of awareness of how you are interfacing with the objects around you can be very dangerous. For example, when driving a car on a freeway, you are travelling at a speed that requires a great deal of distance to stop completely. Plus, all the other vehicles are travelling at or about the same speed. To drive safely, each driver needs an appreciation of where they are, where they are going, where everyone else is, and where everyone else is going e.g., changing lanes, stopping etc. Situational awareness is critical for decision-making. Image by MikesPhotos from Pixabay Situational awareness is that you have an understanding of where you; have been, are and are going 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 70 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Decision-Making Having recognised coherent information from the stimuli reaching our senses, we must decide on a course of action. In other words, decision-making occurs. Decision-making is the generation of alternative courses of action based on available information, knowledge, prior experience, expectation, context, goals, etc. then selecting one preferred option. It is closely aligned with problem solving and judgement. This may range from deciding to do nothing, to deciding to act immediately in a very speci c manner. A re alarm bell, for instance, may trigger a well-trained sequence of actions without further thought (i.e., evacuate). Alternatively, an unfamiliar siren may require further information to be gathered before an appropriate course of action can be initiated. Image by Michal Jarmoluk from Pixabay Recognised coherent information from the stimuli we must decide on a course of action We are not usually fully aware of the processes and information which we use to make a decision. Tools can, and should, be used to supplement decision-making or to assist in the process of deciding. For instance, in aircraft maintenance engineering, many procedures and documents such as Aircraft Maintenance Manuals and Fault Isolation Manuals, are available to supplement the basic decision- making skills of the individual. Thus, good decisions are based on knowledge supplemented by written information and procedures, analysis of observed symptoms and performance indications. It can be dangerous to believe that existing knowledge and prior experience will always be suf cient in every situation. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 71 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight Safety Foundation Good decisions are based on knowledge supplemented by written information and procedures Finally, once a decision has been made, an appropriate action can be carried out. Our senses receive feedback related to the action and its result. This helps to improve knowledge and re ne future judgement by learning from experience. In this way, incorrect decision-making can be a valid way to learn, and is sometimes termed ‘productive failure’. Children learn many things by trial and error. But in hazardous or dangerous situations, learning by making mistakes due to poor decision-making, is not wise. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 72 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only