Jungle PDF - Research Strategy

Chapter 5 Population - The entire set of individuals to a researcher. Although the entire population usually does not participate in a research study, the results from the study will be generalized to the entire population. Also known as target population Sample - A set of individ...

Chapter 5 Population - The entire set of individuals to a researcher. Although the entire population usually does not participate in a research study, the results from the study will be generalized to the entire population. Also known as target population Sample - A set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to represent the population in a study Target Population - A group defined by researchers specific interests Accessible Population - The easily available segment of a target population. Researchers typically select their samples from this type of population Representativeness - The extent to which the characteristics of the sample accurately reflect the characteristics of the population Representative Sample - A sample with the same characteristics as the population Biased Sample - A sample with characteristics different from those of the population Selection Bias - When participants or subjects are selected in a manner that increases the probability of obtaining a biased sample. A threat to external validity - occurs when the selection process produces a sample with characteristics that are different from those in the population Sampling - The process of selecting individuals to participate in a research study Sampling Methods - The variety of ways of selecting individuals to participate in a research study Probability Sampling - A sampling method in which the entire population is known, each individual in the population has a specifiable probability of selection, and sampling is done using a random process based on probabilities Random Process  - A procedure that produces one outcome from a set of possible outcomes. The outcome must be unpredictable each time, and the process must guarantee that each of the possible outcomes is equally likely to occur Nonprobability Sampling - A method of sampling in which the population is not completely known, individual probabilities cannot be known, and the selection is based on factors such as common sense or ease with an effort to maintain representatives and avoid bias Simple Random Sampling - A probability sampling technique in which each individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of selection Systematic Sampling - A probability sampling technique in which a sample is obtained by selecting every nth participant from a list containing the total population after a random starting point Stratified Random Sampling - A probability sampling technique that involves identifying specific subgroups to be included in the sample and then selecting equal-sized random samples from the preidentified subgroup Proportionate Random Sampling - A probability sampling technique that involves identifying specific subgroups to be included, determining what proportion of the population corresponds to each subgroup, and randomly selecting individuals so the proportion for each subgroup in the sample exactly matches the corresponding proportion in the population Cluster Sampling - A probability sampling technique involving random selection of groups instead of individuals from a population Convenience Sampling - A nonprobability sampling method involving selection of individuals on the basis of their availability and willingness to respond; that is, because they are easy to get Quota Sampling - A nonprobability sampling technique, and a type of convenience sampling involving identifying specific subgroups to be included in the sample and then establishing quotas for individuals to be sampled from each group Chapter 6 Research Strategy  - A general approach to research determined by the kind of question that the research study hopes to answer Descriptive Research Strategy - A general approach to research that involves measuring a variable or set of variables as they exist naturally to produce a description of individual variables as they exist within a specific group, but does not attempt to describe or explain relationships between variables Linear Relationships - In a graph showing the changing values of two variables, a pattern in which the data points tend to cluster around a straight line Curvilinear Relationship - In a graph showing the changing values of two variables, a pattern in which the data points tend to cluster around a curved line Experimental Research Strategy - A research strategy that attempts to establish the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one variable while measuring the second variable and controlling all other variables Research Design - A general plan for implementing a research strategy. A research design specifies whether the study will involve groups or individual subjects, will make comparisons within a group or between groups, or specifies how many variables will be included in the study Research Procedure - The exact, step-by-step description of a specific research study External Validity - The extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in that study Threat to External Validity - Any characteristic of a study that limits the ability to generalize the results Internal Validity - The extent to which a research study produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship between two variables Threat to Internal Validity - Any factor that allows for an alternative explanations for the results of the study Extraneous Variables - Any variable that exists within a study other than the variables being studied. In an experiment any variable other than the independent and dependent variables Confounding Variable - Extraneous variable (usually unmonitored) that changes systematically along with the two variables being studied. A confounding variable provides an alternative explanation for the observed relationship between the two variables and, therefore, is a threat to internal validity. Artifacts - An external factor that can influence or distort measurements o Experimenter Bias § When the outcomes of the study is influenced by the expectations or personal beliefs of the person conducting the study o Demand Characteristics § Cues participants use to figure out what is expected of them in the study o Participant Reactivity § A change in participants behaviour due to their awareness of being watched or observed Experimental Research Strategy: - Internal validity is high - External validity is low Descriptive Research Strategy: - Internal validity is low - External validity is high Correlational Research Strategy: - External validity is high - Internal validity is low Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy: - Internal validity is higher compared to descriptive and correlational studies; lower compared to experimental studies - External validity is high Chapter 13 Three Types of Descriptive Research - Survey research - Observational research - Case study research Survey Research - 4 main issues: o Determine the types of questions to use  § Yes-no questions § Open-ended questions § Forced alternative questions § Multiple choice questions § Rating scale questions o Survey construction § Demographic questions § Content questions o Obtaining a representative sample of respondents o Administering the survey § Mail § Telephone § In person § Online Mail Surveys - Advantages: o Anonymous o Easy to administer (self-administered) o Interviewer bias is not a concern - Disadvantages: o Response rate is low (20%-30%) § The number of people who completed and returned the survey divided by the total number of surveys that were sent out. o Can be expensive o Nonresponse Bias § The people who respond differ in some way from those who do not o More likely responded to by a more educated segment of the population o No control over who completes the survey Telephone Survey - Advantages: o Response rate is higher than for mail surveys (60%-70%) o Interviewer can ask for clarification o Conducted from the researchers home or workplace - Disadvantages: o Regarded as a bothersome intrusion o Nonresponse bias § The people who respond differ in some way from those who do not o Not well suited for long, in depth interviews or surveys that touch on sensitive matters In Person Survey or Interview - Advantages: o Interviewer can answer any questions to provide clarification o Response rates are much higher (80%-90%)  o Willing to talk for longer - Disadvantages: o Time consuming and expensive o Interviewer bias Online Survey - Advantages: o Able to reach a large number of participants quickly o Low cost o Convenient for respondents o Embed media o Skip irrelevant questions - Disadvantages: o The people who respond to the survey may not be representative of the general population o Not every household has a computer Threats to Survey Validity - Formatting and wording of the survey questions asked Observational Research Design - The researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe the behavior. Behavioral Observation - Direct observation and systematic recording of behaviors. Habituation - In behavioral observation, repeated exposure of participants to the observer’s presence until it is no longer a novel stimulus. Behavior Categories - Categories of behavior to be observed (such as group play, play alone, aggression, social interaction). A set of behavior categories and a list of exactly which behaviors count as examples of each are developed before observation begins. Frequency Method - In behavioral observation, a technique for converting observations into numerical scores that involves counting the instances of each specific behavior that occur during a fixed- time observation period. Duration Method - In behavioral observation, a technique for converting observations into numerical scores; involves recording how much time an individual spends engaged in a specific behavior during a fixed-time observation period. Interval Method - In behavioral observation, a technique for converting observations into numerical scores; involves dividing the observation period into a series of intervals, recording whether or not a specific behavior occurs during each interval, and then counting the number of intervals in which the behavior occurred. Time Sampling - A technique of behavioral observation that involves observing for one interval, then pausing during the next interval to record all the observations. The sequence of observe– record–observe–record is continued through the series of intervals. Event Sampling - A technique of behavioral observation that involves observing and recording one specific event or behavior during the first interval, then shifting to a different event or behavior during the second interval, and so on for the full series of intervals. Individual Sampling - A technique of behavioral observation involving identifying one participant to be observed during the first interval, then shifting attention to a different individual for the second interval, and so on. Content Analysis - Using the techniques of behavioral observation to measure the occurrence of specific events in literature, movies, television programs, or similar media that present replicas of behaviors. Naturalistic Observation - A type of observation in which a researcher observes behavior in a natural setting as unobtrusively as possible. Also known as nonparticipant observation. Participant Observation - A type of observation in which the researcher engages in the same activities as the people being observed in order to observe and record their behavior. Contrived Observation - Observation in settings arranged specifically to facilitate the occurrence of specific behaviors. Also known as structured observation. Survey Research Design - A research study that uses a survey to obtain a description of a particular group of individuals Types of Questions - Open ended questions o Introduces a topic and allows participants to respond in their own words - Restricted Questions o Presents participants with a limited number of response alternatives, restricting the response possibilities - Rating scale questions  o Requires participants to respond by selecting a numerical value on a predetermined scale Constructing A Survey - Demographic questions - Sensitive questions - Questions with same topic should be grouped together - Pages of survey should be simple and uncluttered - Vocabulary and language Archival Research - Looking at historical records to measure behaviors or events that occurred in the past Case Study Design - An in depth study and detailed description of a single individual. May involve an intervention or treatment administered by the researcher Case History - A case study that does not include a treatment or intervention Case Study Research - Advantages: o Detailed o Opportunity to identify special situations that can modify a general treatment effect o Powerful and convincing - Disadvantages: o Describes does not identify what explains behavior o Lack of internal validity o Weak external validity o Biases