General Airmanship AER100 Past Paper PDF 2024

GENERAL AIRMANSHIP AER100 MICHAEL SARTOR OUTLINE WHAT IS AIRMANSHIP? DO PILOTS NEED TO WHO SHOULD REFER TO WHAT ABOUT PILOTS MUST BECOME UNDERSTAND HOW TO PERFORMANCE AND NAVIGATION? GOOD DECISION-MAKERS TAKE CARE OF AN WEIGH...

GENERAL AIRMANSHIP AER100 MICHAEL SARTOR OUTLINE WHAT IS AIRMANSHIP? DO PILOTS NEED TO WHO SHOULD REFER TO WHAT ABOUT PILOTS MUST BECOME UNDERSTAND HOW TO PERFORMANCE AND NAVIGATION? GOOD DECISION-MAKERS TAKE CARE OF AN WEIGHT & BALANCE WITH THE INFORMATION AIRCRAFT? CHARTS? PROVIDED PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION & PLANNING FLIGHT PREPARATION It is the pilot’s responsibility to be Proper prior familiar with all aspects of a flight planning prevents poor Preparation is key! performance. Weather, NOTAMS, routing, airspace, performance, aircraft status, flight gear, charts, etc. all need to be verified and examined each flight CAR 602.71 Pre-Flight Information CAR 602.72 Weather Information  AEROPLANE CLEANLINESS How does a dirty aircraft (including the propeller) affect the aircraft and its performance? What about insects? Ensure drain grommets are clear Use approved cleaning agents A clean windshield Bugs can sometimes look like airplanes at a distance Bugs could obscure an aircraft at a distance Scratches can significantly block the pilots view Remove/Cover open areas (as required)  Carburetor air filters must be free from contamination One of the most frequent caused of premature engine AEROPLANE wear CLEANLINESS Exhaust heaters should be inspected for leaks/cracks What could a leak or crack lead to? GROUND HANDLING Tricycle gear: Tow bar if available – otherwise pushing on horizontal stab near fuselage High wing: push by hand on the wing strut root fitting or main gear strut Low wing: push by hand on leading edge (tips are best for maneuverability) Often “No-Push Points” Never: push/pull on the propeller blades Why not? Removing C172 from Hangar FUELLING Aircraft and hose nozzle must be grounded Static electricity builds up when flying through the air (especially when cold!) Rubber tires do not dissipate this build-up Hose nozzle should make metal-to-metal contact Fill tanks after flying – why? Draw fuel from tank during pre-flight inspection Any suspicion of water contamination – entire system should be thoroughly checked!  Water suspended in the fuel does not ordinarily cause significant problems Passes through and evaporates in combustion Any water in very cold weather can lead to ice crystals (suspended or not) and block fuel lines and filters Can add de-icing additives Reduced engine power, fuel consumption or rough running engines are signs of fuel icing FULLING Sand and other microorganisms can also interfere with proper operation Be careful filling tanks all the way if warmer conditions will occur later Ensure fuel caps are secure FUELLING WITH A DRUM Use a filter/water separator Portable pump bonded to the drum Use fuel from the top of drum Let the drum stand to allow water/contaminations to settle Can use a chamois-lined funnel in case of emergency During pre-flight inspection check proper operation of fuel system Fuel caps should be vented – why?  Only use approved oil set by manufacturer Never fill oil to the very top – leave room for expansion OIL Do not over-tighten the oil cap (finger-tight) Heat will cause the oil ring to expand and can break causing oil to leak CHECKING OIL C172S has 8 quart capacity POH indicates can operate with 5 quarts of oil Seneca runs at 6 quarts of oil Do not overfill PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION/WALKAROUND Follow POH Similar for most aircraft What are we looking for? What if something is wrong? TAXI TAXIING Moving the aircraft on the ground under its own power Considerations? Looking inside or out? Listening? Brake pressure? Speed? Distance between aircraft? Ground surface condition? Wind? JET BLAST TC AIM 1.7 TAKE-OFF TAKE-OFF Taxi to very end of runway to use the full length Take-off/land into wind Final check of instruments Verify approach and departure end of runway before entering the runway Where no hold short line exists – remain at least 200’ from runway Intersection take-offs “Immediate Take-off” indicates you taxi and take-off in one continuous movement Any other considerations?  Workload Management Systematic checks Admin (Time, fuel, distance, tracks, wind etc. ) Straight and level when checking heading to compass Weather (Clouds, Thunderstorms, Icing, Wind Shear etc.) EN-ROUTE Airspace (Controlled/Uncontrolled) Communication (ATC, FSS etc.) Arrival/Approach/Landing preparation – get “ahead” of the aircraft Any other considerations?  FTGU: “Pilot in a high speed executive transport aeroplane who observes a jet 1 ½ miles distant on a 90 deg converging track has only 7 seconds to take evasive action.” p.316 MID-AIR Requires a minimum of 10 sec to spot, identify it, COLLISION realize the risk of collision, and take corrective action… MINIMUM Most often during daylight in VFR conditions within 5 miles of an aerodrome “SEE AND AVOID” MID-AIR COLLISION - SCANNING The eye only sees what the mind lets it see Several factors alter the pilots view/scan These will be further discussed in Human Factors Critical area is 60 deg to the left and right, 10 deg up and down Slower aircraft require a greater scan Stop and look at certain blocks Keep head still to not blur vision External scan is 3x as long as internal Attitude -> Heading -> Altimeter -> ASI -> Turn Coordinator -> Attitude  Some interesting sayings: You never want the aircraft to be in a position that you have not considered/briefed at least 5 min prior A good landing starts 15 miles back at 5,000’ Good lookout – aircraft are all converging/diverging to/from this area APPROACH Aircraft performance AND LANDING Airport condition Runway awareness Preparation continues past just the landing – where do we taxi, fuel, park etc. LANDING ERRORS Unstable approach An approach is considered stabilized when the following criteria are met: 1. The aircraft is on the correct flight path (for IFR, within ½ scale laterally and vertically) 2. Only small changes in attitude are required. 3. Indicated airspeed within +10/-5 KIAS of target airspeed. 4. The aircraft is in the correct landing configuration. 5. Rate of descent is no greater than 1000 FPM. 6. Power setting is appropriate for the aircraft configuration. 7. All briefings and checklists have been completed. 8. The aircraft is able to land within the Touchdown Zone. This is the Seneca Stable Approach Criteria  Wheelbarrowing Inadvertently pushing too much on the nosewheel Loss of directional control or braking Usually resulting from excess speed in approach with LANDING full flaps ERRORS Touch down will little to no rotation Best to go-around Chief cause on take-off is the result of pushing the nose down to gain speed LANDING ERRORS Balloon Sensation the ground is approaching fast than actual – pilot pitches up abruptly resulting in a climb (“ballooning”) Results from excess speed Pilot could over pitch nose down to correct resulting in Secondary balloon; OR Contacting nosewheel first with a subsequent bounce Correction: Re-establish cruise/add power – reacquire flare Safer Correction: Go-Around LANDING ERRORS Bounce Due to slow/late flare – nose wheel contacts runway 1st Pilot reacts late resulting in a porpoise. Can be corrected (early) but best to go-around LANDING ERRORS Porpoising Aircraft condition where it bounces back and forth from nose wheel to main wheel Incorrect landing attitude + excess speed Can be violent and unstable Best recovery is to complete a go-around  Porpoise Landing What should the pilot have done in this situation? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1fFrEuuMF8&t=14s GO-AROUND/OVERSHOOT (BALKED LANDING) What if we do not want to What do we do? How do we do it? continue an approach and/or landing? GO-AROUND/OVERSHOOT Traffic, weather, crosswinds, unstable approach, ATC etc. Be decisive and fluid in this procedure – it is not an emergency Procedure: Smoothly apply full power (+ carb heat to cold) Establish level flight transitioning to climb attitude Initial flap retraction Retract gear with a positive rate and clear of ground contact Continue retracting flaps on schedule Consider Vx or Vy for climb Don’t forget radio calls when safe to do so SENECA C172S GO AROUND PROCEDURE  Excessive braking increases wear on the system Never land with brakes applied Land at calculated speed Lower nosewheel (nose wheel type) slowly and BRAKING gently TECHNIQUE Positive brake pressure until aircraft is stopped/sufficiently slow – don’t pump the brakes Essentially non-existent on wet grass or icy runways FLAT SPOTTED TIRES From brakes being engaged on landing Have heels of feet on the floor when landing to help avoid this  HYDROPLANING Occurs on a wet or icy runway Types of hydroplaning: dynamic, viscous, reverted rubber If evidence of hydroplaning is found on the runway, tires involved were inflated Deflated tires do not hydroplane Threshold velocity at which hydroplaning may occur on a rolling tire: 𝑉𝑘𝑡𝑠 = 9 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 If the tire is not rotating: 𝑉𝑘𝑡𝑠 = 7.7 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 Where Tire Pressure is in Pounds per square inch (PSI) HYDROPLANING Tire is moving on wet surface Water comes between the tire and the supporting surface This reduces the friction needed to stop and maneuver the aircraft 3 types Viscous – thin layer of water between low-speed tire and surface Dynamic – thicker layer of water, complete loss of tire contact Reverted rubber – locked tire skids, frictional heading raises tire with steam  DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING Landing on surface with standing water deeper than tread depth of tire, brakes lockup and tire rides on water surface.  VISCOUS HYDROPLANING Due to the viscous properties of water. Can happen with thin film of fluid no more than one thousandth of an inch in depth. Occurs at lower speed than dynamic hydroplaning. Needs smooth surface like asphalt or rubber coated surface. Can have coefficient of friction like wet ice. REVERTED RUBBER HYDROPLANING  REVERTED RUBBER Occurs during heavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel skid Thin film of water on the runway is required to facilitate this type of hydroplaning Skidding generates enough heat to cause the rubber in contact with the runway to revert to original uncured state The reverted rubber acts as a seal between the tire and the runway, and delays water exit from the tire footprint area Water steams below tire, keeps it off runway. Can happen www.faa.gov after dynamic hydroplaning. Leaves a clean spot on runway. MISCELLANEOUS WAKE TURBULENCE Remember induced drag? Pressure differential over and under the wing Intensity is directly proportional to weight and inversely to wing span and speed Starts with aircraft rotation, ends with touchdown Most severe with heavy, slow, and clean configured Flows outwards and backwards Slight crosswind will tend to let the vortices move over parallel runway Stronger winds push the vortices out of the way WAKE TURBULENCE AVOIDANCE Downward and outward motion During Flight: Avoid flying 1,000’ below and behind a large & heavy aircraft Taxi: Stay well behind and avoid going below a helicopter Take-off: Lift off before and have a steeper flight path than preceding aircraft,. If an aircraft just landed, plan to lift-off after the touchdown point Landing: steeper approach and touch down further than preceding aircraft SEPARATION MINIMA TC AIM 4.1.1 In non-radar environment ATC provides a minimum of 2 minutes of separation between heavy and light 3 min if the second aircraft will use more runway than the preceding aircraft in an intersection TO Still remains pilot responsibility – “Caution Wake Turbulence”  Recall: Parasite and induced drag High pressure on the lower side, low pressure on the GROUND upper side of the wing EFFECT By having a force downwards, lift can be generated upwards More down-going air, more work being done, more induced drag GROUND EFFECT Low airspeed and high AoA – induced drag is high When near the ground induced drag is reduced High pressure flowing from under the wing is physically stopped by the surface Wing tip vortices are significantly reduced Must be within the wingspan of the aircraft to the ground Low-wing aircraft are more affected by this phenomenon affected Think of any issues with this??? GROUND EFFECT Normal Operations: Special Take-Off Scenarios: Short or Soft Field Techniques - Get airborne then accelerate in G/E before climbing Landing: We use G/E to our advantage in most landings – aircraft slows down / attitude for touchdown GROUND EFFECT Abnormal Operations: Take-Off: Allowing aircraft to accidentally get airborne prematurely – climb out of G/E at low airspeed Landing: Fast approach – aircraft floats down the runway Risk running out of runway and forcing aircraft onto runway (See: bounce/porpoise) Risk running off the end of the runway Solution? GROUND EFFECT Main concern: Take-off is initiated prior to reaching take-off speed Aircraft is able to lift off due to reduced induced drag As induced drag increases and the aircraft reaches its half its wingspan in altitude, ground effect is no longer present Aircraft is normally just above stall speed at lift off and is now fully stalled Usually with soft or soft field take-off procedures, hot + heavy aircraft, or weak engines GROUND EFFECT What should you do then? Complete proper performance Allow a margin of safety and lift off at slightly faster speed than normal Further increase as much speed as possible close to the ground prior to climb GROUND EFFECT This also affects landing aircraft Aircraft tends to float down the runway Results from aircraft often having excess speed in approach + flare Can run out of runway What do we do when the approach is not as planned? WIND SHEAR Abrupt & sudden changes in wind velocity The aircraft carries its inertia Most severe with take-off and landing Can result in stalls, undershoot and overshoot conditions WIND SHEAR – DECREASED PERFORMANCE Increased tailwind Decreased headwind Results in momentary worse performance – less lift + airspeed Increased rate of descent Undershoot tendency + potential stall condition Corrective action: Momentarily add more power WIND SHEAR – INCREASED PERFORMANCE Increased headwind Decreased tailwind Results in momentary better performance – more lift + airspeed Decreased rate of descent Overshoot tendency Corrective Action: Momentarily decrease power WIND SHEAR - CROSSWIND  Requires quick corrective actions Often it is best to complete a Go-Around Best to avoid – PIREPs, alerting systems, thunderstorms in the area WIND SHEAR If you encounter it, REPORT it How do we know we have encountered wind shear Fluctuating airspeed, vertical airspeed, attitude, heading, and required power settings GUSTING CONDITIONS Gusts are momentary Results in increased Reduction in speed in Requires slight increases in wind wing loading normal flight increase in speed while velocity on approach – Why?  Several illusions which will be further discussed in Human Factors Terrain appears lower than it actually is RAIN Horizon can also appear lower than the true horizon Light can appear distorted and further away Approach lights tend to appear larger and nearer VOLCANIC ASH Serious issue resulting in MAJOR damange Not detectable on radar – St. Elmo’s fire at night Aircraft essentially gets sand-blasted The ash can melt inside the engines and cause failure Be on alert for such conditions and read weather charts Reduce power and make a 180 deg turn to escape Report it LOW FLYING RECOMMENDATIONS Reduce airspeed in poor weather Keep one hand on the throttle at all times Easy to overestimate airspeed when low – what can this lead to? Re-route around cities Do not plan to intentionally fly low in poor weather  Weight of snow on parked aircraft Blocked aircraft components with blowing snow Ice can jam control surfaces, alter W&B, crack the airframe etc. Cabin heaters must be free of cracks – carbon COLD / WINTER monoxide poisoning OPERATIONS Retractable landing gear and wheel pants can freeze and prevent movement Taxiway and runway surfaces may be contaminated Landing and take-off distances are increased, and max crosswinds are reduced CRITICAL SURFACE CONTAMINATION Aircraft must be clear of all contamination CARs 602.11 - No person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost, ice or snow adhering to any of its critical surfaces. Increased stall speed by at least 5-10% up to 30% May never reach sufficient take-off speed Snow may turn into ice during take-off roll – don’t think it will just blow off  Restore aircraft to the clean configuration Heated hangar – must dry afterward! DE-ICING Wing covers will reduce contamination Broom for light snow or frost Larger aircraft use heated de-icing fluid under pressure De-icing, then Anti-icing DE-ICING FLUID TYPES Type 1: de-icing, low viscosity Type 2: de-icing when heated, anti- icing when not heated. V1 greater than 100 knots Type 3: anti-icing, properties between 1 and 2,V1 less than 100 knots Type 4: usually anti-icing – same properties as type 2 with longer Hold over Times (HOT) COLLISION AVOIDANCE Scanning technique Pre-flight planning preparation Clean the windshields What about passengers? Can they look out for traffic? Blind spots? Complete maneuver turns to ensure clearance If there is no apparent change to an identified aircraft track – you are on a collision course! Always keep the aircraft is visual sight Any other suggestions?  Lets review… Explain the fueling process Should the oil cap be super tight? Is ice and snow allowed on critical surfaces? THE END What are some possible landing problems? What do we do in the event of such problems? What's the maneuver for volcanic ash? Any questions?