Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development PDF

THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT- JEAN PIAGET Proposed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss biologist, had profound interest in epistemology, a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge. Later he developed a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology. Piaget called...

THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT- JEAN PIAGET Proposed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss biologist, had profound interest in epistemology, a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge. Later he developed a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology. Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. The theory deals with the nature of Knowledge and how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it. Piaget's theory is mainly known as a developmental stage theory. Cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience. It is the acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solving across ones lifespan Piaget’s Key Concepts Schema - The mental representation of an associated set of perceptions, ideas, and actions. Piaget considered schema to be the basic building blocks of knowledge/intelligent behavior. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based. Piaget claimed that knowledge cannot simply emerge from sensory experience; some initial structure is necessary to make sense of the world. New born babies have a small number of innate schemas, even before they experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us. For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema.' Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking. Piaget defined a schema as "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning." Piaget called schema as the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations. Process of Adaptation Piaget viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation/adjustment to the world and this happens through assimilation accommodation and equilibration. Assimilation - Assimilation is when an individual modifies his current schema. Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information. This means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by referring to information you already have learned previously and try to fit the new information into the information you already have. For example, a 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. The toddler shouts “Clown, clown” Accommodation - Existing schemas might be altered or new schemas might be formed as a person learns new information and has new experiences. Accommodation is when an individual change his schema Piaget defined accommodation as the cognitive process of revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation. In order to make sense of some new information, you actual adjust information you already have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for this new information. For example, in the “clown” incident, he understands that even though his hair was like a clown’s, the man was not a clown. With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”. Equilibration- Piaget defined it as an innate tendency or continuous drive on the part of an organism to organize its experiences (through assimilation and accommodation) for obtaining optimal adaptation (maintaining balance between himself and his environment) to the changing demands of its environment. Piaget believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we seek 'equilibrium' in our cognitive structures. Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. An unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it. Stages of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget’s four stages of Cognitive development are Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7 Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11 Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up ❖ Sensori-motor Stage. From birth to about two years. It is called Sensorimotor Stage, because children’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, moving, touching, testing and so on. In the first few weeks of life the infant exhibits reflex responses, such as sucking, looking, reaching and grasping. Later the reflex disappears, and the baby chooses what and when to grasp.  The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions. During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: Object permanence: This refers to the understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard or touched. Till this kind of understanding is achieved, an object that is out of sight remains out of mind and therefore, becomes non-existent. Self-recognition: the child realizes that other people are separate from them Deferred imitation: the process in which an individual observes an action and then performs that action later. Representational play: pretend play which emerges when a child begins to use familiar objects in appropriate ways to represent their world. This kind of play begins to occur between 12- to 21-months of age. The emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings. ❖ Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years). This stage is called Pre-Operational because the children have not yet mastered the ability to perform mental operations. Children’s thinking during this stage is governed by what is seen rather than by logical principles It is divided in to two stages Pre-conceptual Phase (ages 2 to 4) and Intuitive Phase (ages 4 to 7) Pre-conceptual Phase – This phase is characterized by,  Semantic function. During this stage the child develops the ability to think using symbols and signs. Symbols represent something or someone else; for example, a doll may symbolize a baby, child or an adult. Egocentrism. This stage is characterized by egocentrism. Children believe that their way of thinking is the only way to think. Children identify objects by their names and put them in to certain classes. They make mistakes in the process of identification and concept formation. For Eg, they think all men as daddy and all women as mommy Animism. Children tend to refer to inanimate objects as if they have life-like qualities and are capable of actions. Intuitive Phase is marked by greater dependence on intuitive thinking rather than just perception. At this stage, children ask many questions as they attempt to understand the world around them using immature reasoning. Centering. Orienting to a single characteristic and ignoring the others. An example of centration is a child focusing on the number of pieces of cake that each person has, regardless of the size of the pieces. Lack of Seriation, ie lacking the ability of classification or grouping objects into categories. Lack of Conservation. It refers to the understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite a change in their appearance. ❖ Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11) During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events. Conservation - Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same. Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. Seriation – The ability to sort objects in the order according to size, shape or any other characteristics.  Transitivity – Ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a seriel order. If A is taller than B, B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C. Decentering – Ability to make multiple aspects of a situation in to account. Identity - the understanding that objects have qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way. For Eg, mass of an object does not change by rearranging it. Reversibility - This means that a child can mentally reverse the sequence of steps of an observed physical process. Performing operations like combining, separating, multiplying, dividing. During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. ❖ Formal Operational Stage (Above 11) Adolescents can think systematically. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas. Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many possible consequences. This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem. Develops logical thought, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, systematic planning. Educational Implications  ✓ Experiential curriculum is advocated. By engaging students in hands on experiences and reflection, they will become better to connect theories and knowledge learned in the classroom to real world situations. ✓ Emphasis on discovery approach of learning. ✓ Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based on childrens developmental level. ✓ Arrange classroom activities that assist and encourage self learning. ✓ Social interactions should be encouraged. ✓ Instructions should be geared to the levels of the child. ✓ Simple to complex and project method of learning ✓ Cocurricular activities have equal importance as that of curricular activities in the cognitive development of the child. ✓ Major goals of education according to Piaget is critical and creative thinking ✓ Activity approach at the primary classes, concrete methods of illustration (use of aids, demonstrations etc.,) at the middle school level and verbal method of teaching should be practiced only from high school classes. Erickson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development is a theory introduced in the 1950s by the psychologist and psychoanalyst Erick Erickson. It posits eight sequential stages of individual human development throughout the lifespan. According to Erickson, ✓ Development of an individual is the result of his interaction with his social environment. ✓ Right from his birth, his social development puts him under specific pressures or conflicts by making specific demands at developmental stages of his life. ✓ The individual tries to meet these specific demands or resolve the crisis by reacting psychologically in his own way, depending upon his circumstances.  ✓ The complexity of the demands from the social environment increases as the child advances on the ladder of growth and development. ✓ So, at each stage of his development, the child faces a new crisis, and the way in which the crisis of each stage is resolved has a major bearing on the development of one’s personality, which is reflected as the positive (trust, autonomy, initiative, etc.,) and negative (mistrust, shame, guilt, etc.,) aspect of one’s personality. ✓ Erickson discovered eight such crisis of life arising at different stages of one’s development and linked them with the eight stages of ones psycho-social development covering ones entire life span. Psycho -social development refers to how a person’s individual needs (psycho) mesh with the needs or demands of society (social). Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. At this point in development, the child is totally dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life. Outcomes If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. The Role of Independence At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. Potty Training The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Outcomes Children who struggle and who are shamed to develop personal control may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Finding Balance Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. Outcomes The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges. Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Outcomes Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them. Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. What Is Identity? When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations. While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity. Importance of Identity Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and consistent sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Building on Earlier Stages Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggle with emotional isolation, loneliness and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage. Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment, will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom. While those who look back and only feel regret will be fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have. Failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair Outcomes Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.  KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Kohlberg, a psychologist belonging to the university of Harvard is known for putting forward a theory of the development of moral judgement in the individual, right from the years of early childhood. Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning). Kohlberg’s theory is the modification of Piaget’s theory of moral development. Moral development is a continuous process that occurs throughout the lifespan. The theory focusses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. He differs from the popular view that children imbibe the sense and methods of moral judgement from their parents and elders by way of learning. He clarified that internal or cognitive processes like thinking and reasoning also play a major role in ones moral development, ie, the way children make moral depends on their level of intellectual development as well as on their upbringing and learning experiences. Kohlberg defined moral development as the development of an individuals sense of justice. He identified three levels of moral development, each containing two levels. Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed order and that moral understanding is linked to Cognitive development. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY (4 to 10 years) Preconventional morality is when people follow rules because they don’t want to get in trouble or they want to get a reward. This level of morality is mostly based on what authority figures like parents or teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or wrong. Children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions. For example, if an action leads to punishment, it must be bad; if it leads to a reward, it must be good. So, people at this level don’t have their own personal sense of right and wrong yet (personal code of morality). They think that something is good if they get rewarded for it and bad if they get punished for it. Stage 1 Obedience and Punishment orientation Children’s morality is controlled by fear of punishment. He tries to obey his parents and elders purely to avoid punishment. Stage 2 Individualism and Exchange Children’s moral judgement is based on self-interest and considerations of what others can do for them in return. Here they value a thing because it has some practical utility for them. They obey the orders of their parents and elders and abide by some rules and regulations, because it serves their interests. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (10 to 13 years) At this stage childrens moral judgement is controlled by the likes and dislikes of others-the conventions, rules and regulations and the law and order system maintained with in the society. Stealing or mercy killing would thus be judged wrong because it is considered wrong by the society at large and legal system. Thus, this level may be regarded as the level where the child identifies with authority. Stage 3 Good Interpersonal relationships. In the early years of the second level of moral development, the childs moral judgement is based on the desire to obtain approval of others and avoid being disliked by being declared a good boy or a good girl. For this purpose he begins to judge the intentions and likes or dislikes of others and acts accordingly. Stage 4 Maintaining the Social Order In the later years of conventional morality level, childrens moral judgements are governed by conventions as well as the laws and mores of the social system. The childrens now follow the rules and regulations of society and take decisions about things being right or wrong with a view to avoiding censure by the elders, authorities or the social system. POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (Age 13 to adulthood (rare)) Postconventional morality is when people decide based on what they think is right (self- accepted moral principles) rather than just following the rules of society. This means that people at this level of morality have their own ethical principles and values and don’t just do what society tells them to do. Only 10-15% peoples are capable of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. Stage 5 Social Contract and Individual Rights At this stage the individuals moral judgements are internalized in such a form that he responds positively to authority only, if he agrees with the principles upon which the demands of authority are based. The individual at this stage begins to think in rational terms, valuing the rights of human beings and the welfare of society. For example, the decision about mercy killing may be left to the individual who is suffering, and if so needed the concerned laws may be amended for the welfare of society at large. Stage 6 Universal principles At this stage the controlling forces for making moral judgements are highly internalized. The decisions of the individual are now based upon his conscience and the belief in universal principles of respect, justice and equality. He does what he, as an individual thinks right regardless of legal restrictions or the opinion of others. Thus in this stage people act according to their inner voice of their conscience and lead a life that they can without a feeling of guilt or shame. Conclusion Children begin to think about morality in terms of right or wrong at a very early age, yet they have to wait until adolescence or adulthood for the dawning of the stage of true morality. It is not essential that all people pass through the third level of moral development. Most adults are not able to cross the second level and a few can reach stage 5. A very few who, being intellectually quite sound can reach stage 6 at the risk of life and property.