Airline Basic Course Summary PDF

Airline Basic Course Summary Performance page 1 Meteorology page 15 Aerodynamics page 30 Flight Controls page 35 Instrument Navigation page 39 Weight and Balance page 43 Flight Planning page 46 Jeppesen page 48 ATC page 50 Propulsion System page 59 Zein...

Airline Basic Course Summary Performance page 1 Meteorology page 15 Aerodynamics page 30 Flight Controls page 35 Instrument Navigation page 39 Weight and Balance page 43 Flight Planning page 46 Jeppesen page 48 ATC page 50 Propulsion System page 59 Zeinab Hassan   PERFORMANCE BASIC PARAMETERS a) TEMPERATURES 1. TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT) Outside air temperature plus 100% Ram Rise. 2. RAM AIR TEMPERATURE (RAT) Outside air temperature plus a certain percentage of the ram rise. 3. STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE (SAT) OR OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE (OAT) Free air temperature obtained from ground meteorological sources or in-flight TAT, corrected for instrument error and compressibility. RAM RISE Increase in air temperature due to compressibility. Ram rise Negligible until speeds above 0.3 mach. COMPRESSIBILITY Change in the volume of matter when external force is applied. b) SPEEDS 1. INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS) Speed indicated by the airplane's instruments. 2. CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS) Indicated airspeed corrected for position error. 3. EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS) Calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility error. 4. TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS) Equivalent airspeed corrected to air density variation. 5. GROUND SPEED (GS) True airspeed corrected for wind. | Jet Performance P a g e 1 c) ALTITUDES ALTITUDE An elevation with respect to an assumed reference level. The barometric altitude measurement measures the reduction in pressure with an increase in alt. 1. INDICATED ALTITUDE The altitude as indicated on the altimeter, when the altimeter sub-scale is set to QNH indicates the aircraft height above mean sea level. 2. PRESSURE ALTITUDE The aircraft height above the Standard Datum Plane (QNE) The Standard Datum Plane, where the weight of the atmosphere is 29.92 inhg or 1013.25hpa. 3. DENSITY ALTITUDE The pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. 4. ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE The height above the surface measured by a radio/radar altimeter. 5. TRUE ALTITUDE The actual height above sea level. This altitude is not indicated by any instruments. POSITION ERROR, PRESSURE ERROR OR INSTALLATION ERROR An error in pressure instruments caused by the difference between the actual static pressure and that obtained from the aircraft. It depends upon the location of the static port pickup points and the attitude of the aircraft. The difference between indicated altitude and absolutely altitude From the high to low look out below From the low to high look out the sky | Jet Performance P a g e 2 TAKEOFF SPEEDS VS OR VSTALL Speed where the airflow separates completely and the wing fully stalls. VS1G Speed at which airflow separation start, but not full wing stalls. This is the highest point in the cl and α curve. VMCA Minimum inflight speed at which the airplane is controllable utilizing aerodynamic controls only (Maximum rudder deflection only), in case of engine failure. VMCG Minimum speed on ground at which the aircraft is controllable utilizing aerodynamic controls only (Maximum rudder deflection only); in case of engine failure. FACTORS AFFECTING VMCG 1. High temp 2. High alt MINIMUM UNSTICK SPEED (VMU) The lowest calibrated airspeed at and above which; the airplane can safely lift off the ground, without encountering tail strike. LIFTOFF SPEED (VLOF) The speed at which the airplane lifts off. This depends on angle of attack, flap setting, and gross weight. MAXIMUM TIRE SPEED This speed is determined by the strength of the tires, since the tires are exposed to high centrifugal forces at high speeds. MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY SPEED (VMBE) The maximum speed for full braking to a complete stop. Remain within heat limitations of the braking system. VMBE depends on weight, temperature, pressure, runway slope, and wind component. | Jet Performance P a g e 3 ENGINE FAILURE SPEED (VEF) The speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. This speed is assumed to be 1 second before the action speed but then revised to be 2 seconds, to allow for the pilots to react to the engine failure. ACTION SPEED (V1) The speed, which is used as a reference, whether to reject or continue the takeoff. V1is not a decision speed; V1 is the speed at which the first braking action must be applied, and therefore, the decision to reject the takeoff must be taken before V1. Upper and lower limits: VMCG≤ V1 ≤ VR& VMBE ROTATION SPEED (VR) The speed at which the airplane is rotated for liftoff. VR may not be less than: 1) V1 2) 1.05 VMCA TAKEOFF CLIMB SPEED (V2) This speed has to be reached at the screen height, and must be maintained for the entire climb, with takeoff flaps, in the event of an engine failure at or after V1. The lower limits of V2 are: 1) 1.2 VS (or 1.13 VS1G) 2) VMCA SCREEN HEIGHTS The height at which V2 speed must be reached above the takeoff surface after an engine failure at V1, the value of this height is 35ft for dry runway and 15ft for wet or contaminated runways. | Jet Performance P a g e 4 TAKEOFF PERFORMANC CRITICAL ENGINE An engine of a multi-engine aircraft, which will result in the most adverse effects on the aircraft's handling and performance, in case of its failure. CLEARWAY Area beyond the runway, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, not less than 500ft wide with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%,.above which no object or any terrain. STOP WAY Area beyond the runway, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway at least as wide as the runway able to support the airplane weight during an aborted takeoff. TAKEOFF DISTANCE REQUIRED (TODR) The longest of the following: 1) The horizontal distance from the start of ground roll to the screen height above the takeoff sur- face in case of engine failure recognized at V1. 2) 115% of the horizontal distances, starting from ground roll to the screen height, with all engines operating. ACCELERATE-STOP-DISTANCE REQUIRED (ASDR) Sum of the distances required to: 1) Accelerate with all engines operating to V1,then 2) Decelerate to a full stop from V1 TAKEOFF RUN REQUIRED (TORR) The longest of the following: 1) The horizontal distance from the start of ground roll to a point equidistant between VLOF and the screen height above the takeoff surface in case of engine failure recognized at V1 2) 115% of the horizontal distance starting from the ground rolls to a point equidistant between VLOF and the screen height above the takeoff surface with all engines operating. THE TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA) The runway length available for takeoff plus any adjoining clearway. THE ACCELERATE-STOP-DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA) The runway length available plus any available stop way. TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA) The runway length available for the ground runs of an airplane taking off. | Jet Performance P a g e 5  FIELD LENGTHS BALANCED FIELD LENGTH Means: the takeoff distance available is equal to the accelerate-stop distance available this is achieved when the airport doesn’t have either Clearway or Stop way, or they were not used. UNBALANCED FIELD LENGTH Means: The takeoff distances available is not equal the accelerate stop distance available this is achieved when the airport has either Clearway or Stop way and it is used. BALANCED V1 The selected V1 when the TODR is equal ASDR BALANCED T.O Means: the TODR is equal ASDR THE TAKEOFF PATH THE TAKEOFF PATH The actual flight path of an aircraft from a point 35ft above the takeoff surface to 1,500ft above the takeoff surface in case of engine failure. 1. FIRST SEGMENT Start from (35ft point), to the point where the landing gear is fully retracted, using takeoff thrust and takeoff flaps at a constant v2 speed. 2. SECOND SEGMENT Start From the gear up point to a gross height of at least 400ft (minimum acceleration height), using takeoff thrust and takeoff flaps at a constant v2 speed. 3. THIRD SEGMENT The horizontal distance required to accelerate, using takeoff thrust, to the final climb speed while retracting flaps and slats. 4. FOURTH SEGMENT Start from the end of the third segment to a gross height of at least 1500ft with flaps up, maximum continuous thrust and at final “Climb speed.” | Jet Performance P a g e 6 CLIMB GRADIENT CLIMB GRADIENT Percentage expresses the height obtained, in relation to the ground distance covered. Gradients of the second segment can reduce the maximum allowable takeoff weights Second segment Gross gradient = 2.4% (2 engines aircraft) Second Segment Net Gradient (-0.8%) = 1.6% (used daily) CONTROLLABLE ITEMS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE & GROSS AND NET GRADIENTS 1. Airplane configuration (position of trim devices, flaps, slats, spoilers, and landing gear) 2. Wheel brake configuration, Whether or not the wheel brake antiskid systems is operative or in- operative 3. Engine thrust 4. The gross weight UN CONTROLLABLE ITEMS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE 1. Runway length, and the availability of a clearway or stop way 2. Runway conditions (wet, dry, slushy, snowy, smooth, or rough) 3. Runway slope 4. Runway temperature (OAT) and surface pressure altitude (PA) 5. Runway wind component 6. Obstacles in the takeoff path REGULATED TAKEOFF WEIGHT (RTOW) The maximum takeoff weight This weight is limited by any of the following: 1. A/C Structure limit 2. Runway limit 3. Tire speed limit 4. Brake energy limit 5. Climb limit 6. Obstacle limit FACTORS AFFECTING GROSS AND NET GRADIENTS ConfigurationFlaps setting V1action speed (minimum limits is VMCG) V2 OPTIMUM TAKE OFF FLAPS SETTING If the problem is the runway, more flaps are useful. If the problem is the climb gradient, fewer flaps are useful. So we can say that the optimum flaps’ setting is a compromise between the two values. | Jet Performance P a g e 7  ENGINE RATINGS FLAT RATED POWER The maximum thrust output that can be provided by the engine based on the ambient temperatures. FACTORS AFFECTING ENGINE THRUST 1. Pressure 2. Temperature 3. Humidity 4. Airspeed TMAX The maximum temperature the engine can provide thrust. TREF The temperature at which the flat rated power begins to decrease because of the high temperature. METHODS OF THRUST REDUCTION The thrust reduction shall not exceed 25%. 1. ASSUMED TEMPERATURE METHOD (ATM) FOR BOEING OR (FLEX) FOR AIRBUS Dictated temperature limits the actual takeoff thrust, thus limit the stress on the turbine, and increase the engine life. Benefits of (ATM) 1. Reduces cost 2. Easy to calculate 3. All limitations are considered 4. Operation is always conservative 2. DE-RATE FOR BOEING Replacing the full rated engine by another less thrust engine. Through the FMC. Very important: the de-rated engine is an entirely different engine but when using the ATM or flex as the VMCG is calculated based on the full rated thrust. | Jet Performance P a g e 8  THRUST RATINGS 1. TAKEOFF THRUST The takeoff thrust setting can be applied for a period of 5 minutes or 10 minutes in case of engine failure. 2. GO AROUND THRUST Setting is the same as the maximum takeoff thrust, with the higher speeds during go-around 3. MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS THRUST (MCT) The highest thrust level, which can be used continuously. In case of engine failure. 4. MAXIMUM CLIMB THRUST Usually below the maximum continuous thrust level, and should be used only for the en-route climb, the step climb, and for the acceleration to cruise speed. 5. MAXIMUM CRUISE THRUST The maximum thrust usable during the cruise IMPROVED CLIMB PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUE Utilizing excess runway available to accelerate to higher takeoff speeds, thereby achieving higher gradient capability, resulting in higher take off weights. QUICK REFERENCE HANDBOOK (QRH) The QRH includes takeoff performance tables and chart QRH can be used for any airport and any runway This is useful when pilots land at airports they don’t have RTOW. These tables are limited to runways with headwind components and pressure altitude of less than 2,000ft. Besides, it doesn’t cover obstacles in the takeoff path. | Jet Performance P a g e 9 CLIMB Portion of the flight starts at the end of the final takeoff segment and the start of the en-route climb. ANGLE OF CLIMB Expressed as a climb gradient (gaining of altitude per unit of horizontal distance) RATE OF CLIMB Expresses gaining of altitude over a period of time. BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB VX The climbing speed at which the airplane reaches a specific altitude over the shortest distance. BEST RATE OF CLIMB VY The climbing speed at which the airplane reaches a specific altitude in the least amount of time. IN CASES OF EMERGENCY. FROM THE INITIAL CLIMB TO TOP OF CLIMB (TOC) 250 KIAS below 10,000ft referred to as constrained speed (KIAS knots of indicated airspeed) 300 KIAS/ 0.78 Machmaintaining 300 knots until switch into Mach number usage 0.78 Mach / 300 KIASfor descent 250 KIAS below 10,000ft CRUISE Phase of flight lasts from TOC to the TOD represents approximately 90% of any flight. The main task for pilots in this phase is to save fuel as much as they can G FACTOR OR LOAD FACTOR The lift produced by the wing relative to the gross weight of the airplane MANEUVER MARGIN The ability of the air surrounding the wings to support the aircraft’s weight at high altitudes EQUIVALENT WEIGHT OR THE APPARENT GROSS WEIGHT Equals actual aircraft weight multiplied by the load factor. The apparent gross weight consists of: 1. Actual weight 2. The lift force of the horizontal stabilizer 3. Inertial forces of vertical accelerations 4. Centrifugal forces (TURNS) | Jet Performance P a g e 10 BUFFET BOUNDARIES The speeds for low and high speed for the initial buffet at any given altitude and weight LOW SPEED BUFFET Buffet caused by flow separation when approaching stall. HIGH SPEED BUFFET Buffet caused by shockwaves formation SPEED MARGIN The margin between speeds for low and high speed for the initial buffet at any given altitude and weight COFFIN CORNER, AERODYNAMIC CEILING OR Q CORNER Altitude at which, there is no margin between low and high speed buffet boundaries, and the load factor is 1.0 g, it is very difficult to keep an airplane in stable flight. ENDURANCE The maximum time the aircraft’s engine will remain operating on a given quantity of fuel. RANGE RANGE. Maximum Nautical Air Mile per unit of fuel SPECIFIC RANGE Distance traveled per unit of fuel Specific Range (SR) =Cruise Nautical Air miles (NAM) ÷Cruise Fuel consumption NAM = NGM X TAS/GS Number of nautical air miles (NAM) the aircraft can fly per 1,000 kg of fuel can be calculated using the following equation Specific Range (SR) = TAS/Total Fuel Flow FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIFIC RANGE 1. Altitude: The larger the difference between IAS and TAS the more miles per unit of fuel can be achieved. Therefore, the higher the better, provided you fly at the correct weights 2. Weight: with in-flight weight reduction (fuel burn) specific range increases 3. Speeds: MRC and LRC | Jet Performance P a g e 11 1. MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE (MRC) Speed at which the maximum fuel mileage or maximum range is achieved. 2. LONG RANGE CRUISE (LRC) Basically time cost the LRC speed gains a significant increase in speed compared to MRC with only a 1% loss in specific range. MAXIMUM SPEED CRUISE (MSC) The cruise speed at the maximum cruise thrust, or at VMO, used when the value of the flight time is the overriding cost factor. CONSTANT MACH CRUISE Speed between LRC and MSC to satisfy intermediate requirements of the relationship between fuel and flight time costs. OPTIMUM ALTITUDE Altitude at which the best fuel mileage occurs. STEP CLIMB A series of altitude gains that improve fuel economy by moving into thinner air as an aircraft becomes lighter and becomes capable of flying in the thinner air at higher altitude, step climb should be performed around the optimum altitude, within the 1% range loss lines if possible. WIND ALTITUDE TRADE OR, BREAK EVEN WIND The wind required to maintain present fuel mileage or range at new altitude. DRIFT DOWN Descent to a lower altitude and an adjustment of speed procedure designed to minimize loss of range In the event of an engine failure or other radical loss of thrust in cruise. The drift down procedure requires: (MCT) And the next step is to choose the descent speed strategy that will ensure: 1. Safe clearance of obstacles 2. Drift down speed (min. Drag) 3. Sufficient range 4. Turbulence Penetration Speed | Jet Performance P a g e 12 DESCENT Portion of the flight start from top of descent (TOD) to the initial approach point. FIRST METHOD Distance = altitude x 3 + 10 Approximately 10 NM required for deceleration from the descent speed to initial approach speed SECOND METHOD Altitude = distance x 3 -30 Approximately 3,000ft for deceleration FACTORS AFFECTING DESCENT TRACK DISTANCE 1. Wind component Add 3NM for each 10 knots of tail wind Subtract 3NM for each 10 knots of headwind. 2. Aircraft weight at any constant speed the rate of descent is higher for light weights than for heavy weights. 3. Aircraft speed The higher the descent speed the higher the rate of descent.-Maximum rate of descent will be obtained at the highest possible airspeed APPROACH AND LANDING APPROACH CLIMB GRADIENTS IN CASE OF GO AROUND 2.1% for 2 engine aircraft 2.4% for 3 engine aircraft 2.7% for 4 engine aircraft LANDING CLIMB GRADIENTS IN CASE OF GO AROUND 3.2% for all engines aircraft APPROACH AND LANDING CLIMB AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION IN CASE OF GO AROUND Phase / Configuration Approach Climb Landing Climb Flaps Approach Flaps Landing Flaps Landing Gear Retracted Extended Engine One engine inoperative All engines operating Thrust T/O thrust on remaining T/O on all engines engines | Jet Performance P a g e 13 FIELD LENGTH LANDINGWEIGHT REQUIREMENTS DEMONSTRATED OR REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE The distance required to land and decelerates to a complete stop, from a point 50 feet above the threshold. EFFECTIVE RUNWAY LENGTH The length of each runway from a point 50 feet above threshold and the remaining runway. THE LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE Field surface designated by the airport authorities to be used for landing and rolling free of obstacles, and able to withstand the aircraft weight. LANDING REFERENCE SPEED (VREF) OR THRESHOLD SPEED (VTH) The target speed in landing configuration at a height of 50ft above the threshold VREF= VTH= 1.3×VS REGULATION REQUIREMENTS DESTINATION AIRPORT The demonstrated landing distance (without reverse thrust): 1. For Dry runway may not exceed 60% of the effective runway length. 2. For Wet or Slippery runway At least 115% of the landing distance required for a dry runway. ALTERNATE AIRPORT The demonstrated landing distance (without reverse thrust): may not exceed 60% of the effective length of the runway, whether that runway is dry, wet, or slippery. | Jet Performance P a g e 14  METEOROLOGY METEOROLOGY The study of the earth`s atmosphere and the physical processes that occur within it. THE WEATHER The state of the atmosphere at a given time and location. THE ATMOSPHERE The gaseous envelop surrounding the earth. Composition of dry air in the lower levels up to 60km: 1. Nitrogen 78.09% 2. Oxygen 20.95% 3. Argon 0.93% 4. Carbon dioxide 0.03% LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1. TROPOSPHERE Extends from the surface up to an average height of 11 km. The temperature decreases with an increase in altitude The troposphere contains over 75% of the mass of the total atmosphere... Tropopause The boundary separating the troposphere and the stratosphere An isothermal layer The Tropopause is lowest at the poles (approximately 23,000 feet) and highest over the equator (approximately 53,000 feet). At the Tropopause there are two main breaks, one at 40° latitude and one at about 60° latitude. A third break may be found around 55°latitude; these breaks can often cause jet streams 2. STRATOSPHERE Extends from the surface up to an average height of 50 km. The temperature increases with an increase in altitude. The lower parts of the stratosphere may be referred to as the aviation atmosphere. Stratopause The boundary separating the stratosphere and the mesosphere, The temperature is around 0°c. 3. MESOSPHERE Extends from the surface up to an average height between 80 and 90 km The temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. Mesopause The boundary separating the mesosphere and the thermosphere At Mesopause the lowest temperature is approximately -90°c occurs | Meteorology p a g e 15 4. THERMOSPHERE This is the outmost layers of the atmosphere that holds the ionosphere in its lower region and the exosphere in its upper regions. The temperature increases with an increase in altitude. (ISA)→INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE Standard day which could be helpful to use as a reference for all calculations. At mean sea level (MSL) 1) Temperature 15°c 2) Pressure 1013.25 HPA 3) Density 1225 G/M3 From MSL to 11 km (36,090ft.)Temperature decreases at 1.98°c per 1000 ft. Tropopause at 11 km (36,090 ft.)Temperature -56.5°c From 11 km to 20 km temperature constant at -56.5c From 20 km to 32 km temperature rises at 0.3°c per 1000 ft. ISA DEVIATION The difference between the ISA temperature at a level and the actual temperature at the same level. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION The primary cause of weather is uneven heating of the earth`s surface by the sun. (Insolation) PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE Means the air flows from the cool dense air of high pressure into the warm, less dense air of low pressure. CORIOLIS FORCE Force that deflects the flow of air to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. | Meteorology p a g e 16 PRESSURE SYSTEMS STANDARD PRESSURE Standard pressure is 1013 HPA, according to ISA as defined by ICAO. QFE QFE is the pressure at a meteorological station or at the datum level of an aerodrome. QNH QNH is the QFE corrected to MSL assuming ISA conditions. QFF QFF is the QFE corrected to MSL using actual outside air temperature and assuming an isothermal layer between the station and MSL. QNE QNE is indicated altitude at touchdown with reference to the standard pressure surface (1013 HPA), Pressure altitude. DEPRESSIONS LIU If we get a point from which the pressure will increase as we move horizontally in any direction from this point we have a low pressure center The isobars surrounding the center are typically circular and fairly close together covering a relatively small area. The air moves inward upward Weather in a depression 1. Cloud full cover 2. Precipitation continuous light or moderate. Heavy showers and thunderstorms possible 3. Visibility good out of precipitation but poor in precipitation 4. Temperature mild. 5. Winds normally strong. ANTICYCLONES HOD If we get a point from which the pressure will decrease as we move horizontally in any direction from this point we have a high pressure center or an anticyclone The isobars surrounding the center may be roughly circular and reasonably well spaced. The anticyclone will cover a large geographical area The air moves outward downward Weather in anticyclones 1. Cloud none 2. Precipitation none 3. Visibility in summer, haze conditions can occur. In winter, foggy conditions 4. Temperature hot in summer, cold in winter. 5. Winds light. | Meteorology p a g e 17 TROUGH Is an elongated (extended) region of relatively low pressure, it is like a v shape RIDGE Is an elongated (extended) region of relatively high pressure, it is like a u shape COL Is a region of very little pressure variation between two high and two lows. Winds are very light and the air remains stationary, col lasting only a few days. WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE SATURATION The amount of vapor that air can hold. HUMIDITY The amount of water vapor in the air. RELATIVE HUMIDITY An expression of how much water vapor is in the air, expressed as a percentage. DEWPOINT Temperature at which the air is said to be saturated. THE DENSITY Mass per unit volume. TEMPERATURE SOLAR RADIATION Radiation from the sun heats the surface of the earth which in turn will heat the atmosphere. This process is called insolation. CONDUCTION Occurs when two bodies are touching one another. Heat passes from the warmer body to the colder body CONVECTION The vertical movement of air as air is heated by conduction or radiation, ADVECTION The horizontal movement of air. It is caused by variation in pressure | Meteorology p a g e 18  STABILITY ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY The resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion. Stable air: air that has been lifted sinks back. Unstable air: air that has been lifted continues to rise. TEMPERATURE INVERSION Increase in temperature with an increase in altitude. LAPSE RATE Decreasing in air temperature with increasing altitude 1. ELR the accrual vertical temperature profile 2. DALR3°c per 1000 FT. 3. SALR 1.5 The ELR determines whether the air is stable STABILITY TYPES 1. ABSOLUTE STABILITY When the ELR is lower than both the DALR and the SALR. 2. ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY When the ELR is greater than both the SALR and the DALR. 3. CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY When the state of stability is decided by whether the air is saturated. When SALR 550 or visibility > 800m II 100-200ft ICAO: > 350m FAA: 350-800m JAA(EASA): > 300m III A < 100ft > 200m III B < 50ft ICAO/FAA: 50-200m JAA(EASA): 75-200m III C No limit None | Navigation p a g e 40  TYPES OF APPROACH 1. Visual 2. Precision: approach and landing using lateral and vertical guidance 3. Non precision: approach and landing using lateral guidance RNAV MODERN NAVIGATION –AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) Modern types of navigation The Airplanes can fly direct to a waypoint without having to pass over ground equipment. 1. INS→ INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM This system is a self-contained system that detects the motion of the airplane and indicates its displacement based on its speed, time and attitude Using accelerometers and gyroscopes The INS updates the position based on the last identified position. INS suffers from Integration drift: is a small error in calculation of positions based on time and speed. 2. IRS→INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM This system is a self-contained system that detects the motion of the airplane and indicates its dis- placement based on its speed, time and attitude Using developed laser gyros The IRS Updates the position based on initial position not the last position. 3. GPS→GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM Is a satellite-based system for navigation owned and operated by the United States Air Force. Around 33 satellites are available This receiver uses a minimum of 3 satellites to provide 2D position (longitude, latitude and track). 4 satellites or more, it can provide 3D position of the aircraft (adding altitude). FMC→FLIGHT MANAGEMENT COMPUTER A computer that is the heart of a flight management system, providing a centralized control for navigation and performance management. It obtains data from various navigational systems. The complete flight plan is loaded into the computer before the flight. The computer calculates air position, fuel consumption, aircraft position, and expected time of arrival HSI→HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR Is an instrument used for navigation. It provides a basic horizontal view of the aircraft’s navigation It reduces the pilot’s scanning workload as it compromises the use of 2 or 3 indicators It combines the heading indicator, VOR, ILS, or ADF indications. RMI→RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR RMI displays two VOR or two ADF or combination of both, along with heading. | Navigation p a g e 41  CLIMB GRADIENT CALCULAITONS Rate of Climb = (Gradient in Ft./nm × Ground Speed) ÷ 60 Rate of Climb = Gradient in % × Ground Speed DESCENT CALCULATIONS The required distance to run = (altitude ÷1000 × 3) + 10 For every 3 knots headwind, subtraction of 1nm is required. For every 3 knots tailwind, an addition of 1nm is required. HOLDING PATTERN. Is a racetrack pattern based on a holding fix. Holding pattern the best way in order to do a coordinated delay to airplanes in flight A standard holding pattern uses right-hand turns and takes approximately 4 minutes to complete one pattern (one minute for each 180-degree turn, and two one-minute sections) ENTRY PROCEDURES Sector 1 (parallel entry) Sector 2 (offset entry or teardrop) Sector 3 (direct entry) The ICAO Maximum holding speeds Up to 14000 Ft 230kts Above 14000 Ft to 20000 Ft 240kts Above 20000 Ft to 34000 Ft 265kts Above 34000 Ft M0.83 A DME ARC Is an imaginary circle, the radius of which is defined by a DME distance from the VOR. Used to transition an aircraft from the enroute environment to an instrument approach PATH INDICATORS 1. THE VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR (VASI) Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance information during approach Consisting of four light units situated (mostly on the left side of the runway) in the form of two wing 2. A PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR (PAPI) Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance information during approach They are installed in a single row, normally on the left side of the runway. 3. A TRI-COLOR SYSTEM Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance information during approach Consists of a single light unit projecting a three-color visual approach path 4. THE PULSATING VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE Is a system of lights that provides visual descent guidance information during approach Consist of a single light unit projecting a two-color visual approach path. (Steady and pulsating) | Navigation p a g e 42 WEIGHT AND BALANCE BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (BEW) This weight includes the weight of: 1. Structure 2. Power plant 3. Furnishings 4. Unusable fuel 5. Engine and constant-speed drive system oil 6. Chemical toilet fluid 7. Basic emergency equipment 8. Fire extinguishers 9. Oxygen system 10. Galleys 11. Electronic equipment required by operator 12. Fluids which are contained in a closed system DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW) Is the basic empty weight plus: 1. Flight and cabin crew and their baggage 2. Manuals and navigation equipment 3. Engine tank oil 4. Food and beverage and related service equipment 5. Washing and drinking water 6. Life rafts and vests 7. Cargo handling system ACTUAL ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (ZFW) It is the dry operating weight plus the payload and must never exceed the maximum zero fuel weight MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT The maximum airplane weight less usable fuel, engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion agents. It may include usable fuel in specified tanks when carried in lieu of payload. MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT (LW) The maximum weight authorized at touchdown by applicable government regulations or by the manufacturer. This is a structural limitation. MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (TOW) The maximum weight authorized at takeoff brake release by applicable government regulations or by the manufacturer. It excludes taxi and run-up fuel. This weight is a structural limitation of the airplane. | Weight and Balance p a g e 43 MAXMUM TAXI WEIGHT (TW) It is also known as maximum ramp weight; it is the maximum weight authorized for ground maneuvers by the applicable structural limitations and includes taxi and run-up fuel GROSS WEIGHT It is the weight of an airplane after all items have been added. UNUSABLE FUEL Is the fuel remaining after a fuel run-out test has been completed and is considered to be in two portions, drainable and trapped. The drainable, unusable fuel can only be drawn off from the sump drains. PAYLOAD It consists of the total weight of revenue including passengers, passenger baggage, and/or cargo. USEFUL LOAD It consists of the payload, usable fuel, and engine injection fluid. DATUM LINE An imaginary reference line from which all calculations or measurements are taken for weight and balance calculations. BODY STATION NUMBERS It is how far in inches a body is from the datum line. CENTER OF GRAVITY The point in an aircraft around which all the weight is evenly distributed or balanced. EMPTY WEIGHT CENTER OF GRAVITY It is the center of gravity of the airplane in an empty weight condition. OPERATING CENTER OF GRAVITY It is the distance between the forward and aft limits of the center of gravity. MOMENT ARM The horizontal distance from the center of gravity of an object to the datum line | Weight and Balance p a g e 44 MOMENT The tendency to produce rotation about a point or axis. MOMENT=WEIGHT×ARM LEADING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (LEMAC) It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord TRAILING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (TEMAC) It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic chord MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD LENGTH TEMAC – LEMAC = MAC LOAD SHEET DEFINITIONS LOAD INDEX For every load there is a C.G. position which equals to a load index figure LI is used for calculations of manual and computerized load and trim sheet DRY OPERATING INDEX (DOI) It is the index figure which corresponds to the center of gravity of the dry operating weight LOAD INDEX ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (LIZFW) Starting with the dry operating index, passenger and cargo load is distributed on the aircraft, the result is LIZFW LOAD INDEX TAKE OFF WEIGHT (LITOW) Adding the fuel weight index to the load index TOW will result in the determination of the LITOW | Weight and Balance p a g e 45  FLIGHT PLANNING BLOCK FUEL BLOCK FUEL (RAMP FUEL) The total amount of fuel required for the flight and is the sum of ↓ 1. TAXI AND APU FUEL The fuel expected to be used for engine start up and taxi to the take-off position, taking into account taxi distances and the traffic delays and APU fuel consumption in kg/min for an average taxi time of 10 to 15 minutes. 2. TRIP FUEL The fuel expected to be used for take-off, climb to the expected cruising level/altitude, en-route, descent, approach and landing. 3. CONTINGENCY FUEL Fuel is carried to compensate for deviations from: 1. The expected fuel consumption data 2. The forecast meteorological conditions 3. The planned routing and expected altitudes A. Contingency fuel is 5% of the remaining trip fuel Or 3% that an enroute alternate is available. B. An amount equal to fuel required to fly for 5 minutes at the holding speed, 1500 FT above the destination 4. ALTERNATE FUEL Fuel should be sufficient for: 1. A missed approach from the applicable MDH/DH at the destination aerodrome, to the missed approach altitude 2. A climb from the missed approach altitude to the cruising altitude; and 3. The cruise from top of climb to top of descent; and 4. The descent from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated and 5. Approach and landing at the alternate aerodrome Note: if two alternates are required, the alternate fuel shall be sufficient to get to the alternate requiring the greater amount of fuel 5. FINAL RESERVE FUEL Fuel should be sufficient to fly for: 1. 45 minutes in an airplane with reciprocating engines; or 2. 30 minutes for an airplane with turbine engines, at the holding speed, 1500 ft. above the alter- nate aerodrome (or destination aerodrome if no alternate is required). | Flight Planning p a g e 46 6. ADDITIONAL FUEL Fuel added to comply with a specific regulatory or company requirement. Examples fuel for technical deficiencies such as engine failure or loss of pressurization, ETOPS fuel. 7. EXTRA FUEL Additional fuel that the commander considers necessary. BALLAST FUEL BALLAST FUEL Fuel is sometimes carried to maintain the aircraft center of gravity within limits. Total fuel = block fuel + ballast fuel TOF = block fuel - taxi fuel - ballast fuel MINIMUM FUEL FOR DIVERSION Consists of: 1. Alternate fuel including go-around fuel at destination and approach and landing fuel at alter- nate. 2. Fuel required to fly 30 minutes at 1500 feet above alternate airport elevation at optimum hold- ing speed. Alternate fuel Final reserve fuel | Flight Planning p a g e 47 JEPPESEN EN ROUTE MINIMUM EN ROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA) The lowest altitude between radio navigation fixes that assures acceptable navigational signal coverage (MRA) and meets obstacle clearance requirements (MOCA). MINIMUM RECEPTION ALTITUDE (MRA) The lowest altitude on an airway segment that assures acceptable navigational signal coverage. MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA) The lowest altitude on an airway segment that meets obstacle clearance requirements. MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE (MCA) The lowest altitude at which a navigational fix can be crossed when entering or continuing along an airway that will allow an aircraft to clear all obstacles. MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDES (MORAS) ROUTE MORAS give at least 1,000 FT altitude clearance above terrain, and 2,000 FT in mountainous area. MORAS provide an obstacle clearance within 10 NM on both sides of the airways and within a 10 NM radius around the ends of the airway. Grid MORAS provide an obstacle clearance altitude within a latitude and longitude grid block. THE MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE (MAA) The highest altitude at which the airway can be flown with assurance of acceptable navigational signal coverage. GREAT-CIRCLE DISTANCE The shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere that is measured along a path. RHUMB LINE OR (LOXODROME) A curve that crosses each meridian at the same angle. | Jeppesen p a g e 48 APPROACH MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (SAVE) The lowest altitude which will provide a minimum clearance 1000 Ft. above all objects located in an area within a sector of a circle of 25 NM radiuses from a navigation radio aid INITIAL APPROACH FIX (IAF) The point where the initial approach segment of an instrument approach begins. Is usually a designated intersection (VOR), (NDB) OR (DME) fix. FINAL APPROACH FIX (FAF) It is the point in space where the final approach segment begins on the instrument approach; FAF on a non-precision approach is marked by a Maltese cross symbol and on a precision approach by glide slope intercept. MISSED APPROACH POINT (MAP OR MAPT) Is the point prescribed in each instrument approach at which a missed approach procedure shall be executed if the required MAP is at the decision height (for a precision approach) or crossed MDA (for a non-precision approach) THE DECISION ALTITUDE (DA) OR DECISION HEIGHT (DH) Is a specified altitude or height in the Precision Approach at which a Missed Approach must be initiated if the required visual reference has not been established. (DA) is referenced to mean sea level and (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation. THE MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE (MDA) OR MINIMUM DESCENT HEIGHT (MDH) Is a specified altitude or height in a Non-Precision Approach or Circling Approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual reference. | Jeppesen p a g e 49 ATC ABBREVIATIONS ACARS Aircraft Communication Addressing and EOBT Estimated Off-Block Time Reporting System ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems ETA Estimated Time of Arrival ACC Area Control Center ETD Estimated Time of Departure ADF Automatic Direction-Finding equipment ETO Estimated Time Over significant point ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance ETOPS Extended Twin-jet Operations AGL Above Ground Level FIC Flight Information Centre AMSL Above Mean Sea Level FIR Flight Information Region ATA Actual Time of Arrival FIS Flight Information Service ATC Air Traffic Control FPL Filed Flight Plan ATD Actual Time of Departure GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service GPS Global Positioning System ATS Air Traffic Service HF High Frequency CAVOK Visibility, cloud and present weather better IFR Instrument Flight Rules than prescribed values or conditions CMU Central Management Unit ILS Instrument Landing System CTA Control Time IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions CTOT Calculated Take-Off Time INS Inertial Navigational System CTR Control Zone MEA Minimum En-route Altitude DA Decision Altitude MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications DH Decision Height MSA Minimum Sector Altitude DME Distance Measuring Equipment MSL Mean Sea Level EAT Expected Approach Time NDB Non-Direction radio Beacon EET Estimated Elapsed Time NOSIG No Significant Change EFC Expected Further Clearance NSC Nil Significant Cloud | ATC p a g e 50 ELEV Elevation NSW Nil Significant Weather OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude SID Standard Instrument Departure OCH Obstacle Clearance Height SKC Sky Clear PANS Procedures for Air Navigation Services SLP Speed Limiting Point PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar PCN Pavement Classification Number STAR Standard (instrument) Arrival Route QDM Magnetic Heading (zero wind) STD Standard QDR Magnetic Bearing TA Traffic Advisory RA Resolution Advisory TCAS Traffic Collision Avoidance System RCF Radio Communication Failure TDZ Touch Down Zone REG Registration TFC Traffic RNAV Area Navigation QFE Atmospheric pressure at aerodrome elevation or at threshold RNP Required Navigation Performance QNH Altimeter sub-scale setting to obtain elevation when on the ground RVR Runway Visual Range THR Threshold RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum TMA Terminal control area UTC (Z)Coordinated Universal Time RWY Runway VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator system VFR Visual Flight Rules VOLMET Meteorological information for aircraft in flight VHF Very High Frequency VOR VHF Omni directional Range VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions WIP Work in Progress WX Weather | ATC p a g e 51 AIR TRAFFIC Services Alerting Service. ALR Flight Information Service. FIS Air traffic advisory service ATAS Air Traffic Control Service. ATC.S and this includes: 1. Area Control Service. ACS 2. Approach Control Service. APP.C.S 3. Aerodrome Control Service. AD.C.S Airspaces Flight Information Region. FIR Control Area. CTA Control Zone. CTR Terminal Control Area. TMA Air traffic service airspaces Danger area Prohibited area Restricted area Units Flight Information Center. FIC Air traffic control units and this includes: 1. Area Control Center. ACC 2. Aerodrome Control Tower. TWR 3. Approach Control. APP DEFINITIONS CLOUD BASE The height of the lowest visible part of cloud over an airfield. Defined as FEW (1-2 Octas) or SCATTERED (3-4 Octas) CEILING (ICAO) The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 20,000 FT cover- ing more than half the sky. Defined as BROKEN (5-7 Octas) or OVERCAST (8 Octas) CONTROL ZONE Controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a specified upper limit. CONTROL AREA Controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit above the earth. | ATC p a g e 52 DANGER AREA Airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times. PROHIBITED AREA Airspace of defined dimensions within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. RESTRICTED AREA Airspace of defined dimensions within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with cer- tain specified conditions. TOTAL ESTIMATED ELAPSED TIME Is the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over that designated point. TRANSITION ALTITUDE The altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is controlled by reference to altitudes. TRANSITION LEVEL The lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude. TRANSITION LAYER The transition layer is the airspace located between the transition altitude and the transition level. TOUCH DOWN ZONE ELEVATION (TDZE) The highest elevation in the first 3000 feet of the runway starting at the Threshold. AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE OR (ATIS) A continuous message, which provides general weather conditions of the airport along with any critical information Such as current weather active runways, available approaches and NOTAMS. VOLMET VOLMET provides meteorological conditions at the surrounding main airports during cruise; it doesn’t include all the necessary information for landing, including runway conditions and its availability. CALCULATED TAKE OFF TIME (CTOT), SLOT TIME, (ATFM) SLOT. The departure time provided by the CFMU, Slot time is issued to allow smooth airflow within the FIR. CTOT has a tolerance of -5 to +10 minutes. CTOT = EOBT + TT + delay (if any) EOBT ( Estimated off-block time) TT (Taxi Time) | ATC p a g e 53 REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMA OR MINIMUM (RVSM) Is the reduction, from 2,000 FT to 1,000 FT, of the standard vertical separation required between air- craft flying between flight level 290 and flight level 410. FLIGHT LEVEL ORIENTATIONS For IFR flights Between 0° and 179°, your flight level or altitude must be odd. Between 180° and 359°, your flight level or altitude must be even For VFR flights The same as IFR ones with adding 500ft to all levels VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR) The ceiling is more than 1500ft (450m) The ground visibility is more than 5 km Flying below FL200 Cruising with speeds less than transonic and supersonic Note: according to Egypt Air, upon requesting visual approach, the pilots should be: Within 25NM from the field, and Have the field insight INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) Over high terrain or in mountainous areas, at a level which is at least 2,000ft above the highest ob- stacle located within 8 km of the estimated position of the aircraft. Elsewhere than as specified in (a), at a level which is at least 1,000ft above the highest obstacle lo- cated within 8 km of the estimated position of the aircraft. WAKE TURBULENCE Is a disturbance in the atmosphere that forms behind an aircraft as it passes through the air. Wake turbulence category L (Light) aircraft types of 7000 kg (15500LB) or less. M (Medium) aircraft types less than 136000 kg (300,000 LB) and more than 7000 kg (15500) H (Heavy) aircraft types of 136,000 kg (300,000LB) or more; (Super Heavy) for Airbus A380-800 with a maximum take-off mass in the order of 560,000 kg. POSITION REPORTING In a non-radar status, flights shall make position reports when over a compulsory reporting point When there are no compulsory reporting points, flights shall make position reports after the first half-hour of flight and then at hourly intervals. When operating under radar service, position reports shall be omitted over compulsory points. Contents of position reports 1) Aircraft identification 2) Position 3) Time 4) Flight Level 5) Next position and expected time over it 6) Position to come afterward | ATC p a g e 54 TRAFFIC INFORMATION GIVEN When traffic information regarding conflicting traffic is given to aircrafts, it is given in the following form: Relative bearing in terms of 12-hour clock. Distance in NM. Direction where traffic is proceeding. Level and type of aircraft if known CAIRO CONTROL ZONE The tower A circle of 10NM radius around CVO VOR/DME Lower LimitGround Upper Limit1000ft CAIRO APPROACH AIRSPACE The control zone A circle of 40NM radius around CVO VOR/DME Lower Limit1000ft Upper LimitFL 115 CAIRO TERMINAL CONTROL AREA: (TMA) Aircrafts are radar vectored in this area. A circle of 40NM radius around CVO VOR/DME and those portions of the airways from a distance of 40NM to 60NM from CVO VOR/DME. Lower Limit FL 115 Upper Limit FL 245 TRANSPONDERS Mode A A/C identification but no altitude reporting. Mode C A/C identification & altitude reporting capability. Mode S A/C identification, altitude, speed and collision avoidance. (TCAS) X-PonderOn ground use only. 7500 Hijack situation. 7600 Communication failure. 7700 Emergency situation. COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE If in VMC Aircrafts shall continue to fly in VMC and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and report its ar- rival as soon as practicable. If in IMC Maintain last assigned speed and level for 20 minutes. Proceed on course according to the flight plan. Commence descent from the navigation aid at the destination at the expected approach time. Execute a full procedure instrument approach and land. | ATC p a g e 55 DISTRESS FREQUENCIES VHF 121.5 MHz UHF 243.0 MHz HF 500 kHz, 2182 kHz, 8363 kHz DISTRESS PHASE The distress signal is (MAYDAY) preferable 3 times. (MAYDAY) call gives the ATC indication that the aircraft requires immediate assistance and will be giv- ing this traffic absolute priority. URGENCY PHASE The urgency signal is (PAN) preferably 3 times. (PAN) A less priority than distress phase. This phase is when the aircraft gives notice of difficulties that is facing without requiring immediate assistance. | ATC p a g e 56 AIR SPACE CLASSES Radio Commu- Separation Service Speed Subject to an Class Type of flight nication Re- Provided Provided Limitation ATC clearance quirement IFR only All aircraft Air traffic control Not applicable Continuous two- Yes A service way IFR All aircraft Air traffic control Not applicable Continuous two- Yes B service way VFR All aircraft Air traffic control Not applicable Continuous two- Yes service way IFR IFR from IFR Air traffic control Not applicable Continuous two- Yes C service way IFR from VFR 1) Air traffic VFR VFR from IFR control service 250 kts IAS below Continuous two- Yes separation from way IFR 2) VFR/VFR traffic 10000 ft. AMSL information Service (and traffic avoidance advice on request) IFR IFR from IFR Air traffic control 250 kts IAS be- Continuous two- Yes D service, traffic low way information about VFR flights (and traffic voidance 10000 ft. AMSL advice on re- quest) IFR/VFR and VFR Nil VFR/VFR traffic 250 Kts IAS be- Continuous two- Yes low way information (and traffic Avoidance advice 10000 ft. AMSL on request) | ATC p a g e 57  Radio Communi- Separation Service Speed Subject to an Class Type of flight cation Require- Provided Provided Limitation ATC clearance ment E IFR IFR from IFR Air traffic control 250 kts IAS be- Continuous two- Yes service and, as far low way as practical traffic Information about 10000 ft. AMSL VFR flights VFR Nil 250 kts IAS be- No No Traffic infor- low mation as far as practical 10000 ft. AMSL IFR IFR from IFR as Air traffic advisory 250 Kts IAS be- Continuous two- No F low soon as practical service, flight in- way formation service 10000 ft. AMSL VFR Nil Flight information 250 Kts IAS be- No No service low 10000 ft. AMSL IFR Nil Flight information 250 kts IAS be- Continuous two- No G low service way 10000 ft. AMSL VFR Nil Flight information 250 kts IAS be- No No service low 10000 ft. AMSL When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 10,000 ft. AMSL, FL100 should be used in lieu of 10,000 ft. | ATC p a g e 58  PROPULSION SYSTEM System producing a force to move a mass in a straight line TWO TYPES OF ENGINES 1. Reciprocating Engines 2. Jet Turbine Engines BOTH ENGINES USE THE FOUR STAGE CYCLE OF 1. Intake 2. Compression 3. Combustion 4. Exhaust NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. JET TURBINE ENGINE BASIC COMPONENTS JET TURBINE ENGINE BASIC COMPONENTS 1. Air Intake 2. Compressor Section 3. Burner Section 4. Turbine Section 5. Exhaust Section COMPRESSOR SECTION Two types of compressors 1. CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSOR It is composed of an Impeller, Diffuser and a Compressor Manifold. The impeller is movable and the diffuser is stationary. Each set of impeller and diffusers is called a stage. Because of drastic change in air direction, centrifugal compressors are relatively limited. 2. AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR It is composed of Rotor Blades and Stator Vanes, the rotor is movable and the stator is stationary. Each set of rotor blades and stator vanes is called a stage. The air moves in an axial motion. We have two types of axial compression engines single compressors and those with dual compressors which we call Twin Spool. | Propulsion System p a g e 59 BURNER SECTION This is an annular tube made from heat resistant steel in which the fuel and air are mixed and ignited About 25% of the air entering the burner section is mixed with fuel for combustion, the remaining 75% by passes the fuel nozzle and is used to cool the combustion chamber as well as the burned gases before they enter the turbine section. TURBINE SECTION It consists of one or more stages of alternate stationary and rotating aerofoil section blades, the rotat- ing blades are carried on discs and discs are connected by a shaft to the compressor. The stationary blades are known as Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGV) EXHAUST SECTION It is a slightly tapered tubular duct which connects he turbine outlet to the exhaust nozzle Inside the exhaust duct the airflow pressure is decreasing and the airflow velocity is increasing. DEVELOPMENT OF THE JET TURBINE ENGINES The development objectives are 1. Improved fuel consumption. 2. Increased thrust to weight ratio. 3. Improved reliability. 4. Better control reduction of noise levels. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ENGINE It is relatively limited because it utilizes the centrifugal compressor as well as the great increase in frontal area, size and weight in order to produce higher thrust. AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ENGINE (SINGLE SPOOL) It replaced the centrifugal compressor engine because of its minimum frontal area (Less Drag) and better compression ratio efficiency. TWIN SPOOL ENGINE It replaced the single spool engine under the demand of higher compression ratios. It consists of a low speed compressor (N1) and a high speed compressor (N2) mechanically independ- ent from each other and each compressor is driven by its own turbine The LPC N1 is driven by the rear turbine TURBOPROP ENGINE It is a turbo jet with an additional turbine (power turbine) used to drive the propeller. It supplies the propeller with double the horse power of a conventional reciprocating engine but still the propeller limitations apply to this engine because reduction gearing has to be used in order to prevent the propeller from reaching high R.P.M. to keep its tip speed below the speed of sound. | Propulsion System p a g e 60 BY-PASS OR TURBO FAN ENGINE Ducted Fan it is the most common type of engine used for aircraft propulsion today Approximately 20% of the total volume of air entering the engine is fully compressed and delivered to the combustion chamber, the remainder 80% is compressed to a lesser extent and By-Passes the combustion chamber to provide cold thrust. Cold air which we call the Secondary Air joins the hot air coming out of the turbine section, mixes with it and comes out of the engine producing the total thrust This mixing of cold and hot air helps lower the temperature of the exhaust which in turn lowers the noise levels produced by this type of engine. LPT drives the LPC HPT drives the HPC FAN ENGINE It is an extension of the by-pass principle without the hot and cold flow mixing; it may be regarded as an intermediate stage between the turbo jet and the turboprop engines. THRUST REVERSERS It have been developed to reduce the wearing of wheel brakes It is located at the rear of the jet nozzle; it mechanically blocks the exhaust gases and diverts them at an angle whereby the direction of thrust is reversed. GAS TURBINE ENGINE SYSTEMS Systems normally associated with gas turbine engines are 1. Lubricating System. 2. Fuel and Fuel Control System. 3. Ignition System. 4. Starter System. LUBRICATING SYSTEM It is used to lubricate the bearings and the gears in the engine, also one important job of the lubricat- ing system is that oil is routed through Oil-Fuel Coolers where the fuel cools the oil and the oil heats the fuel. It consists of an oil tank, oil pump, pressure relief valves, filters, sumps and scavenges pumps. FUEL AND FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM Fuel is supplied to fuel nozzles through Fuel Control Unit (FCU) which makes sure that an adequate amount of fuel is supplied to give the optimum mixture It consists of boost pumps, engine driven pumps, filters, flow indicators, shut off valves, fuel heater, main fuel control unit (FCU) and fuel nozzles. IGNITION SYSTEM It produces a large flaming spark because the fuel-air mixture is moving at a high velocity and it is not uniformly distributed It is not designed for continuous operation as in piston engines but it can oper- ate continuously in certain conditions like take off, landing, icing conditions, turbulence | Propulsion System p a g e 61  STARTER SYSTEM Pneumatic type starter is the most commonly used on large engines; it is supplied by air from a ground cart, the APU or from the other engine if it is running. The starter rotates a shaft engaged through the gearbox to the N2 shaft (HPC). During a turbo fan engine start the starter drives only the n2 shaft. JET ENGINE STATION DESIGNATION Numerical designation has been given to various sections in the jet engine to facilitate reference; it can be from 1 to 5 or from 1 to 7 depending on the size of the engine. Some other designations are: T for temperature P for pressure S for static T for total Am for ambient air in front of the engine MEASUREMENT OF THRUST Because the pressure and the thrust produced by the engine are proportional, the large jet engines use the turbine discharge pressure or engine pressure ratio (EPR). (EPR) the total pressure of the turbine discharge divided by the total pressure of the compressor inlet. EPR = Engine Output Pressure ÷ Engine Input Pressure OTHER ENGINE INDICATORS N1 Indicator: It shows the LPC speed in percent of the maximum R.P.M. speed, it is used to measure the thrust in different engine designs. N2 Indicator: It shows the HPC speed in percent of the maximum R.P.M. speed. Exhaust Gas Temp: It shows the temperature of the gases in the turbine (EGT) exhaust case. Fuel Flow Indicators: It shows the fuel consumption rate in kilogram (FF) per hour for each engine. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH JET ENGINE OPERATIONS 1. Air Pollution. 2. Noise Pollution. 1. AIR POLLUTION Carbon Monoxide (CO) Unburned Hydrocarbons (H/C) Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) In an effort to control the air pollution manufacturers began the production of the High By-Pass engines. 2. NOISE POLLUTION Sound: Is anything that can be heard. Noise: Is unwanted and irritating sound. | Propulsion System p a g e 62  AVIATION INDUSTRY APPROACHED THE NOISE PROBLEMS IN TWO DIFFERENT AREAS 1. Engine Development. 2. Noise Abatement Procedures. 1. ENGINE DEVELOPMENT Lower velocity exhaust and fitted with sound absorbing liners inside the fan ducts and exhaust nozzle. The result was the development of the Turbo Fan Engine. 2. NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES They are procedures performed by pilots in the takeoff and approach phases. TAKE OFF NOISE ABATEMENT Immediately after lift off the pilot must maintain the steepest possible safe climb gradient at takeoff thrust to gain as much height as possible. After reaching a prescribed height, engine power must be reduced to climb thrust and accelerate to normal climb speed. LOW DRAG APPROACH Pilots are required to delay landing flaps and landing gears extension and maintain a low drag configuration until a prescribed height. Low drag configuration means lower engine power and higher approach speed which results in lower noise emission. | Propulsion System p a g e 63