Personality PDF (University of Canterbury)

lOMoARcPSD|47975743 60bf462a 6043 4af9 b479 aa72545 da374 Personality (University of Canterbury) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|47975743 60bf462a 6043 4af9 b479 aa72545 da374 Personality (University of Canterbury) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 1. How would you define mental imagery? the ability to manipulate and create sounds, images, or sen- sations in one's mind without any external stimuli 2. According to Pylyshyn mental images are Pylyshyn argued that mental epiphenomena derived from propositional images are secondary phe- representations. What did he mean by that nomena arising from more fun- statement? damental propositional repre- sentations that convey mean- ing in cognitive processes. 3. What is the main difference between a de- depictions represent informa- piction and a proposition in the mental tion through visual or senso- imagery debate? ry imagery, resembling the ob- ject or scene, while proposi- tions represent information in an abstract, language-like form that conveys meaning without resembling the actual experi- ence. 4. In one of his experiments, Kosslyn mea- because the time taken to shift sured the time taken by people to shift focus between locations on the their focus from one location on a boat to boat correlated with the dis- another. Why did he interpret the findings tance between them, suggest- as consistent with perceptual-like visual ing a mental representation depictions? similar to visual scanning. 5. How did Brooks (1968) use the time re- mentally scanning an imagined quired to classify the corners of an imag- shape took longer when par- ined shape to show that mentally scan- ticipants had to classify cor- ning an imagined object and scanning a ners that were farther apart, real object involve similar spatial process- similar to the time required es? to scan real objects, indicat- ing that both mental and physi- cal scanning involve analogous spatial processes. 1 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 6. In Santa (1977) participants studied a tri- participants were more accu- angular array of words and were then rate and quicker in verifying asked to verify which words they had stud- words and shapes when test- ied. Two kinds of test arrays were used. ed in the original triangular Either the test words were arranged in a arrangement compared to a lin- linear order, or they preserved the origi- ear order, suggesting memo- nal triangular layout. In a second part to ry for spatial arrangements is the experiment participants studied a tri- closely tied with the formation angular arrangement of shapes and were in which they are first encoded tested with either a linear ordering of the shapes or a triangular array of the shapes. What were the results of this experiment, and why are the results important? 7. What result prompted Shepard & Metzler the time it took participants to to propose that mental rotation is an ana- determine whether pairs of 3D logue of perceived rotation? objects were the same or differ- ent increased with the degree of rotation between the objects, suggesting that people mental- ly rotate objects in a manner similar to how they would phys- ically perceive them rotating in space 8. Under what circumstances do motor areas when the imagery involves a of the frontal lobes become active when spatial manipulation that re- people imagine an object rotating? (see sembles actual motor actions 8th edition p. 83, or 9th edition p. 111) 9. Ganis, Thompson, and Kosslyn (2004) ob- similar brain activation patterns served brain activation as people either a) occurred in regions associat- verified statements about visible familiar ed with visual processing when objects, or b) verified the same statements participants verified statements while they imagined viewing those the ob- about visible objects and when jects. What did they find and what conclu- they imagined viewing those sions did they draw from their investiga- same objects tion? 10. 2 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 1. O'Craven & Kanwisher (2000) had peo- found that the same areas of ple alternately view houses or faces or the brain were activated when alternately imagine viewing houses or participants either viewed or faces. How did the pattern of brain activa- imagined houses and faces, tions they recorded support the view that specifically in regions known imagery and perception share the same for processing visual informa- brain processes? tion related to those categories. This pattern of activation sup- ported the view that imagery and perception share the same neural processes 11. What evidence supports the claim that making size comparisons between re- membered and perceived objects involves similar processes? 12. 1. In terms of the propositional-depiction is important in the proposition- debate why is it important to show that im- al-depiction debate because it agery activates the earliest topographical- suggests that mental imagery ly organised regions of the visual cortex? is more akin to visual percep- tion than to abstract proposi- tional representations 13. 1. In terms of the properties they represent visual images represent de- what distinguishes visual from spatial im- tailed visual properties, such ages? (see 8th edition p. 88-89, or 9th edi- as color, shape, and tex- tion p. 118-119) ture, closely resembling how an object appears in the real world,while spatial images fo- cus on the relationships and spatial arrangements of objects in a given space, emphasiz- ing dimensions and locations rather than specific visual de- tails 14. 1. What neuropsychological findings sug- because patients with certain gest that it is necessary to distinguish vi- brain lesions can experience specific impairments. For in- 3 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 sual from spatial images? (see 8th edition stance, individuals with dam- p. 89, or 9th edition p. 119) age to the occipital or temporal lobes may have difficulty with visual imagery, affecting their ability to recall visual details, while those with parietal lobe damage may struggle with spa- tial imagery, impacting their un- derstanding of spatial relation- ships and navigation. 15. A cognitive map that takes into ac- Viewer-centered; world-cen- count only the navigational informa- tred tion as seen from a person's sub- jective viewpoint is known as a(n) ________________________ map, while a cognitive map that is more global in its perspective and does not take any particular viewpoint is known as a(n) ___________________________ map. 16. 1. Many people mistakenly believe that They suggest that people of- Dunedin is East of Westport and the At- ten rely on generalizations or lantic entrance to the Panama Canal is fur- relative positioning rather than ther West than the Pacific entrance. What precise spatial understanding, do these tell us about our representation leading to errors in how we of geographical regions? visualize and organize geo- graphic information 17. Explain what Sperling's partial report involved presenting partici- method is and how it furthered our under- pants with a brief array of let- standing of visual sensory memory. ters, followed by a tone that in- dicated which row they were to recall. This technique allowed researchers to measure the ca- pacity of visual sensory memo- ry more accurately. Participants could typically recall about 75% of the letters in the indicated 4 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 row, even though they were only exposed to the array for a fraction of a second 18. Goldman-Rakic has conducted delayed neurons in the prefrontal cortex response tasks involving single-cell that show a preference for a recordings in the prefrontal cortex of mon- cued location exhibit sustained keys. Describe the response activity of a firing during the delay period, brain cell that shows a preference for the even after the cue has disap- location that had been cued on a trial, dur- peared. This continued activity ing the delay period when the cue is no reflects the cell's role in main- longer present. taining working memory for the location that was just cued, in- dicating that these neurons are involved in temporarily holding information about spatial loca- tions during the delay, which is crucial for guiding subsequent actions or responses 19. What was the name of the task used by Delayed response task Goldman-Rakic involving location cueing and single-cell recordings in monkeys? ________________________________________. 20. ________________________ is the only single-cell recording recording method currently capable of dissecting the neural elements involved in working memory processes. 21. What brain region in human and non-hu- the prefrontal cortex man primates is consistently implicated in working memory tasks? 22. 1. According to Goldman-Rakic, what ac- sustained neural firing tivity is thought to be a neural correlate of working memory? 23. In an oculomotor delayed response task Goldman-Rakic concluded that using single-cell recordings there was ev- sustained firing of prefrontal 5 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 idence indicating that the activity of neu- neurons during the delay inter- rons during the delay interval was corre- val correlated with successful lated with successful saccades to a target saccades to a target location, location. What evidence led Goldman-Ra- indicating active representation kic to this conclusion? of that location. 24. 1. Leonardo Chelazzi and his colleagues a brain cell in the inferior tem- have conducted delayed response tasks poral lobe that shows a pref- involving single-cell recordings in the in- erence for a cued item (e.g., ferior temporal lobe of monkeys. Describe a cup) exhibits sustained firing the response activity of a brain cell that during the delay period even af- shows a preference for a particular item ter the cue is no longer present (e.g., a cup) that had been cued as the target on a trial, during the delay period when the cue is no longer present. 25. 1. According to Atkinson & Shiffrin's the duration of information held Multi-Store Model of Memory, the prob- in short term memory ability of encoding information into long-term memory is directly related to ____________ in short-term memory. 26. what key idea is central to the "Levels of that the depth at which informa- Processing" (LOP) theory? tion is processed affects how well it is remembered 27. 1. Specify the main difference between a precise elaboration enriches "precise elaboration" and an "imprecise the original idea with concrete elaboration". details, while imprecise elab- oration offers a less effective, more generalized expansion. 28. Give one example of a precise elaboration precise elaboration ex. "The and one example of an imprecise elabo- angry man smashed the win- ration from the Stein & Bransford (1979) dow with a brick" imprecise alb- study using "The ______ man (plus a pred- oration ex. "The man did some- icate)" type sentences thing unusual" 29. 1. In the follow-up to the preceding study, Stein & Bransford did a training study with 6 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 5th grade children. What was the main out- was that they showed signifi- come for the so-called "Less Successful" cant improvement in their abil- children after training? ity to elaborate on information 30. 1. Describe Sternberg's original "serial Suggests when people search exhaustive" account of his "short-term for an item in short-term memo- memory scanning" experiment. ry, they use 1. serial processing (one at a time) 2. exhaustive search - Even if the target item is found partway through the search, the participant contin- ues to scan through all items in memory before concluding the search 31. 1. What specific reaction time pattern showed that reaction times for of data, regarding both the "yes" and both "yes" and "no" respons- "no" responses, obtained by Sternberg in es increased linearly with the his "short-term memory scanning" experi- number of items, indicating ment led him to believe that the short-term a serial exhaustive scanning memory scanning process was a serial process in short-term memory. exhaustive one? 32. 1. Describe Anderson's (ACT*) alternative suggests that memory retrieval account of the memory search process is a more efficient parallel in Sternberg's "short-term memory scan- process based on intercon- ning" experiment. nected concepts, rather than a strictly serial and exhaustive search. 33. 1. What is the main difference in the one list contained semantic re- words used in the two different word list latedness (words that are relat- types used in a version of Sternberg's ed in meaning), while the other "short-term memory scanning" task that list consisted of random, unre- actually supported Anderson's (ACT*) al- lated words ternative account of the memory search process in Sternberg's "short-term mem- ory scanning" experiment. 34. 7 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 1. In terms of expected "load effects," what limited capacity parallel pro- is the critical difference between limited cessing shows degraded per- capacity parallel processing and unlimit- formance with increased load, ed capacity parallel processing? while unlimited capacity main- tains stable performance re- gardless of load. 35. 1. How would a cognitive psychologist de- a meaningful statement or as- fine the term "proposition"? sertion that expresses a re- lationship between concepts, representing a unit of knowl- edge that can be true or false. Propositions serve as the build- ing blocks of meaning in cogni- tive processes such as reason- ing, comprehension, and mem- ory. 36. 1. Give an example of a "fan effect." when a person learns multiple facts about a single concept, such as "Paris." If someone learns that Paris is the capital of France, known for the Eiffel Tower, and famous for its art museums, the cognitive load in- creases as they try to recall any one of those facts 37. According to J. R. Anderson's ACT* the- a "production rule." ory, the memory unit that serves as the interface between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge is called 38. Production rules conditional statements that guide the application of knowl- edge in specific contexts, link- ing what is known (declarative) to what can be done (procedur- al) 8 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 39. 1. ____________________ memories in- Episodic; semantic clude information about where and when they were learned; whereas ____________________ memories reflect general knowledge of the world. 40. Recognition scores for Spanish vocabu- The findings support interfer- lary decrease over decades since initial ence theory, as decreasing learning. Do the findings support decay, recognition scores for Spanish interference, or neither of these theories vocabulary over decades like- of forgetting?" Justify your answer. ly result from new information interfering with retrieval rather than simple decay. 41. Explain what is meant by the term refers to the process by which "spreading activation" in reference to activating one concept in mem- memory functioning. ory triggers the activation of re- lated concepts, allowing for the retrieval of interconnected in- formation. 42. 1. What is a major distinction between a episodic memory involves the memory classified as episodic, compared recollection of specific events to one classified as semantic? or experiences, including con- textual details like time and place, whereas semantic mem- ory refers to general knowledge about the world, facts, con- cepts, and meanings that are not tied to a specific time or place 43. What critical factor distinguishes mainte- maintenance rehearsal focus- nance (rote) from elaborative rehearsal? es on repeating information to keep it in short-term memory without adding meaning, while elaborative rehearsal involves actively processing and relat- ing new information to existing knowledge, enhancing under- 9 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 standing and long-term reten- tion. 44. 1. If you were asked to recall a 5-item list would be that you would recall of 2-syllable words and then a 5-item list of the 2-syllable words better than 5-syllable words, what would be the likely the 5-syllable words. This phe- outcome? (see 8th edition p. 130, or 9th nomenon is often attributed to edition p. 179) the word length effect 45. Outline a manipulated variable that differ- the type of encoding task, with entially affects explicit and implicit memo- semantic tasks enhancing ex- ry. (see 8th edition p. 176, or 9th edition p. plicit memory and perceptual 239) tasks enhancing implicit mem- ory. 46. Elizabeth Loftus has proposed a "con- Elizabeth Loftus demonstrated structive" (erase and update) view of the constructive view of memo- memory for events. Describe the outcome ry by showing that participants of one experiment that supports this view exposed to misleading informa- tion about a car accident were more likely to recall incorrect details consistent with that mis- information. 47. 1. In a follow-up to Loftus's research us- The authors concluded that ing misleading questions, the researchers their findings supported Tulv- found that if the chronological order of the ing's "encoding-specificity prin- originally witnessed sequence of slides ciple" because preserving the was preserved during the final recognition original chronological order test, then the effect of the misleading inter- during the recognition test im- vening question went away. The authors proved memory retrieval and of that study concluded that their results reduced the impact of mislead- supported Tulving's "encoding-specificity ing information. principle". What justification did they have for that conclusion? 48. 1. The unusual experiment performed by encoding-specificity principle Godden and Baddeley (1975), which in- by investigating how the con- cluded having participants wear scuba text of learning affects mem- ory retrieval, specifically com- 10 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 diving equipment underwater, was an at- paring recall performance of tempt to examine what? participants who learned words underwater versus those who learned them on land. 49. 1. Memory performance is generally better state-dependent memory. It when we are tested in the same emotional refers to the improved recall of and physical state we were in when we information when an individual learned the material. What is this phenom- is in the same emotional or enon called? physical state during retrieval as they were during encoding. 50. 1. According to the encoding-specificity princi- _______________________ _, recreating ple the original learning conditions makes re- trieval easier. 51. 1. Describe how the Encoding Specifici- The Encoding Specificity Prin- ty Principle is supported by (choose only ciple is supported by con- one) either "state-dependent" or "context text-dependent memory, which dependent" memory. demonstrates that recall is im- proved when the external con- text at retrieval matches the context present during encod- ing. For example, in Godden and Baddeley's study, partici- pants who learned words un- derwater were more likely to remember them when tested underwater compared to being tested on land. 52. 1. What is the major difference between Explicit memory involves con- explicit and implicit memory? scious recall of facts and events, while implicit memory operates unconsciously, allow- ing us to perform tasks and skills without active thought. 53. implicit memory 11 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 1. Knowledge that we cannot consciously recall, but that nonetheless manifests it- self in our improved performance on some task, is referred to as _______________ memory. 54. 1. Describe the dissociation between ex- In studies with amnesic pa- plicit and implicit memory in the study tients, those individuals show involving amnesic patients and a normal impaired performance in explic- control group who were required to recall it recall tasks while perform- studied words in one task and complete ing similarly to normal con- fragments of studied words in the other trols in implicit tasks like word task. (see 8th edition p. 175, Fig 7.14; or fragment completion, illustrat- 9th edition p. 238, Fig 7.15) ing the dissociation between explicit and implicit memory. 55. 1. An amnesiac patient who cannot retrograde amnesia recollect memories from prior to the trauma that caused the amnesia has ________________ amnesia. 56. 1. Summarize some of the striking fea- H.M. displayed profound amne- tures of profound amnesia displayed by sia characterized by an inabil- the famous amnesia patient known as ity to form new explicit memo- H.M. ries (anterograde amnesia) fol- lowing his surgery, while retain- ing intact implicit memory and some remote memories from before the procedure. 57. 1. As measured by fMRI what happens to typically show a decrease in the amount of brain activity when people brain activity in regions associ- become more proficient at a task such as ated with task execution, indi- performing mathematical derivations? cating increased efficiency and automaticity in processing. 4o mini 58. 1. What significant changes occur in the In the progression from the progression from the cognitive to the as- cognitive to the associative sociative stages in skill acquisition? stages of skill acquisition, in- 12 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 dividuals experience significant changes such as a reduction in the need for conscious thought and attention, increased auto- maticity and fluency in perform- ing the skill, and improved abil- ity to correct errors and refine performance based on prac- tice. 59. 1. What characterises the performance demonstrates high levels of of a person who has reached the au- proficiency and automaticity in tonomous stage of skill acquisition? performing the skill, allowing them to execute it effortlessly and with minimal conscious at- tention, while also being able to multitask and adapt to chang- ing conditions effectively. 60. 1. From what you know about massed schedule distributed practice, vs distributed practice, how would you where shorter, more frequent schedule your training to minimise the to- practice sessions are spread tal number of hours spent learning to jug- out over time, rather than en- gle? gaging in long, intense ses- sions of massed practice 61. What can you conclude about the reten- procedural knowledge, such as tion of procedural knowledge from Koler's the ability to perform a skill, study of reading inverted text? can be retained over long pe- riods, even without practice, as participants demonstrated sig- nificant improvement in reading inverted text after a substan- tial delay, indicating that once learned, procedural skills can be retained and recalled effec- tively. 62. 1. What is meant by the phrase expertise expertise involves the trans- is "proceduralised knowledge"? formation of declarative knowl- 13 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 edge (understanding facts and concepts) into procedural knowledge (the ability to per- form tasks automatically and efficiently), allowing experts to execute complex skills with minimal conscious thought and effort. 63. 1. Experts have tactics and strategies that experts posses refined tactics novices lack. Expand. and strategies that allow them to recognise patterns, make in- formed decisions, and adapt to challenges effciently 64. 1. Novices and experts are likely to per- experts are able to recognize ceive problems differently. Elaborate. (see relevant patterns and underly- 8th edition p. 221-223, or 9th edition p. ing structures, allowing them to 296-297) frame problems in more effi- cient and effective ways, while novices may focus on surface features and lack the contex- tual understanding needed for deeper problem-solving 65. 1. Much expert performance involves pat- expert performance relies on tern recognition. Expand pattern recognition, enabling individuals to quickly identify and interpret complex informa- tion based on their extensive experience, leading to faster judgments and more effective problem-solving. 66. 1. What characteristics of expertise are captures the characteristics of captured by Capablanca's statement I see expertise such as deep intu- only one move ahead, but it is always the ition, superior pattern recogni- correct one? (Capablanca was a legendry tion, and the ability to make chess grandmaster) accurate, informed decisions quickly, highlighting how ex- 14 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 perts can efficiently assess a situation and identify optimal solutions without needing to consider every possible option. 67. 1. Why are chess masters better able than because they can recognize novices to remember the layout of chess and recall patterns and con- pieces during a game? figurations from their extensive practise 68. 1. Two of the following are characteristics Motivation to learn; perfor- of deliberate practice. Circle them. mance compared against cor- a) Motivation to learn rect performance b) Massed practice c) Performance compared against correct performance d) Parental belief of special talent. 69. 1. According to Anderson, under what cir- when the tasks share similar cumstances is skill likely to transfer? underlying structures or prin- ciples, when the learner has a strong foundation of relat- ed knowledge and skills, and when the context of practice re- sembles the context in which the skill will be applied 70. 1. What makes an intelligent tutor suc- due to its ability to provide cessful? personalized feedback, adapt to individual learning styles and paces, assess student un- derstanding in real-time, and deliver targeted interventions that address specific knowl- edge gaps 71. 1. Linguists focus much of their competence; performance study of language on two elements: ________________, which is concerned with the infinite number of utterances 15 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 that are possible, and ________________ which centers on the systematic nature of these utterances. 72. 1. Name two features of language that a Creativity of language use Behaviourist could not explain, according (ability to generate novel sen- to Chomsky's book review of B.F. Skin- tances); rapid acquisition of ner's Verbal Behavior. language by children (speed at (1) which children learn grammar) __________________________________________________ (2) __________________________________________________ 73. 1. What was the main goal of Chomsky's to describe the syntactic struc- "phrase structure grammar"? ture of sentences in a for- mal way, illustrating how dif- ferent components of a sen- tence are organized and how they can generate an infinite number of grammatically cor- rect sentences in a language. 74. 1. Among those who believe in lan- the linguistic phenomenon guage universals, it has been argued where a language allows the that pro-drop is a parameter setting on omission of pronouns when which natural languages vary. What does they are understood from con- pro-drop refer to in a natural language? text, meaning that subject pro- nouns can be dropped without causing confusion. For exam- ple, in languages like Spanish or Italian, one can say "Voy" (I go) without explicitly stating the subject "yo" (I). 75. 1. What term is used to describe grammat- syntax ical rules for specifying correct word order and inflectional structure in a sentence? 76. 1. rapid language acquisition - babies can learn vocab very 16 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 1. Give two reasons why current theo- quickly suggest theres a innate ries suggest babies are born with at least capacity for language rather some innate knowledge of language. than mere imitation. 2. Univer- sal grammar - similar gram- mar across languages sup- ports idea that humans are born with an inherent under- standing of fundamental lin- guistic principles 77. 1. What name is given to the hierarchi- phrase structure grammar cal organization of a sentence into a set of units called phrases, sometimes repre- sented as a tree structure? 78. 1. Give an example of an overextension a typical two year old might (sometimes called overgeneralization) er- make an overextension error by ror that a typical two-year old might make. using the word "dog" for any four legged animal 79. Describe Swinney's (1979) study of lexical found that both meanings of ambiguity and explain its significance for an ambiguous word are ac- the study of language processing. tivated simultaneously during language processing, illustrat- ing the complexity and dynam- ic nature of real-time language comprehension 80. 1. Besides "memory nodes", what are A. Attention, B. Activation, C. the 5 main ingredients in Gernsbacher's Construction, D. Integration, E. Structure Building Framework model of Elaboration language comprehension? a. _______________________________ b. _______________________________ c. _______________________________ d. _______________________________ e. _______________________________ 81. Semantic priming - when read- ing about one topic people be- 17 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 Give two examples that provide evidence come more quickly to recog- for the process Gernsbacher calls "laying nize related words (e.g, doctor the foundation". then nurse) Sentence Context Effects - when sentances are presented in a coherent con- text, individuals show better re- call and understanding of sub- sequent information 82. 1. Describe the operation of the suppres- Gernsbacher's suppression sion mechanism proposed by Gernsbach- mechanism inhibits irrelevant er to account for the findings in one of her information during reading, al- "on-line" comprehension experiments. lowing participants to focus on the most pertinent concepts and enhancing their compre- hension of the current context. 83. 1. What are the five universal developmen- Cooing: Beginning around 2 to tal changes associated with language de- 3 months, infants produce coo- velopment from the first few months to 3 ing sounds, which are early vo- years of age? calizations. Babbling: Around 6 months, in- fants start babbling, combining consonant and vowel sounds. Single Words: By around 12 months, children typically begin using single words to express meaning. Two-Word Combinations: By about 18 to 24 months, children start forming two-word phras- es, indicating the beginnings of syntax. Vocabulary Explosion: Be- tween 2 and 3 years, children experience a rapid increase in vocabulary, often learning new words at an accelerated rate. 18 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 84. 1. Referring to all males of a certain overextension or overgeneral- age as "daddy" is an error that a typical ization two-year-old might make. What is this type of error called? 85. 1. One of the important principles to that people interpret language emerge in studies of language processing as they encounter it, process- is the "immediacy of interpretation" prin- ing words and constructing ciple. What is this principle? meaning in real-time rather than waiting for the entire sen- tence to be completed 86. 1. What important variables were manip- ulated in the class lab Image Scanning Experiment? 87. 1. In the Image Scanning lab experiment you were required to classify the words in a remembered sentence and to classi- fy the corners of a remembered outline shape. What result from this experiment led Brooks (1968) to conclude that "verbal and spatial information are handled in dis- tinct modality-specific manners."? 88. 1. Explain Craik and Lockhart's "levels of suggests that deeper semantic processing" (depth of processing) and de- processing enhances memory tail the experimental evidence that sup- retention, as demonstrated by ports it. experiments showing better re- call for words processed mean- ingfully compared to those processed superficially. 89. What result from the experiment men- to explain memory perfor- tioned in the previous question led Craik mance was the finding that and Tulving to suggest that the notion participants who engaged in of elaboration was necessary to explain deeper semantic processing, memory performance? such as forming meaningful connections with words, ex- hibited significantly better re- 19 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47975743 secret lily study Study online at https://quizlet.com/_fnda22 call than those who only processed superficial features, indicating that elaboration en- hances memory retention. 20 / 20 Downloaded by clanker milk ([email protected])