The Sexual Self PDF

THE SEXUAL SELF Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human Reproductive System Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are formed. The general structure and shape of the body and face, as well as sex hormone levels, are simil...

THE SEXUAL SELF Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human Reproductive System Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are formed. The general structure and shape of the body and face, as well as sex hormone levels, are similar in preadolescent boys and girls. As puberty begins and sex hormone levels rise, differences appear, though some changes are similar in males and females. Male levels of testosterone directly induce the growth of the genitals, and indirectly (via dihydrotestosterone (DHT)) the prostate. Estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to develop in females. However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast development by reducing the capacity of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen. Underarm hair and pubic hair are usually considered secondary sex characteristics, but may also be considered non-secondary sex characteristics because they are features of both sexes following puberty. Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature. Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very different, the hormonal control of the process is very similar. In addition, though the timing of these events varies between individuals, the sequence of changes that occur is predictable for male and female adolescents. As shown in the image below, a concerted release of hormones from the hypothalamus (GnRH), the anterior pituitary (LH and FSH), and the gonads (either testosterone or estrogen) is responsible for the maturation of the reproductive systems and the development of secondary sex characteristics, which are physical changes that serve auxiliary roles in reproduction. Figure 1. During puberty, the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones in both male and female adolescents. 1 Signs of Puberty Different sex steroid hormone concentrations between the sexes also contribute to the development and function of secondary sexual characteristics. Examples of secondary sexual characteristics are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics Male Female Increased larynx size and deepening of the Deposition of fat, predominantly in voice breasts and hips Increased muscular development Breast development Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and Broadening of the pelvis and growth of increased growth of body hair axillary and pubic hair As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the development of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and pubic hair. A growth spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11, and may last two years or more. During this time, a girl’s height can increase 3 inches a year. The next step in puberty is menarche, the start of menstruation. In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the beginning of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the scrotum and growth of the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations typically appear at approximately 15 years of age, but this age can vary widely across individual boys. Unlike the early growth spurt observed in females, the male growth spurt occurs toward the end of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy’s height can increase as much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue through the early 20s. The Human Sexual Response Cycle It is a four-stage model of physiological responses to sexual stimulation, which, in order of their occurrence, are the excitement-, plateau-, orgasmic-, and resolution phases. This physiological response model was first formulated by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, in their 1966 book Human Sexual Response. Since then, other human sexual response models have been formulated. 1 Excitement phase The excitement phase (also known as the arousal phase or initial excitement phase) is the first stage of the human sexual response cycle, which occurs as a result of physical or mental erotic stimuli, such as kissing, making out, or viewing erotic images, that leads to sexual arousal. During this stage, the body prepares for sexual intercourse, initially leading to the plateau phase. There is wide socio-cultural variation regarding preferences for the length of foreplay and the stimulation methods used. Physical and emotional interaction and stimulation of the erogenous zones during foreplay usually establishes at least some initial arousal. 2 Plateau phase The plateau phase is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. The phase is characterized by an increased circulation and heart rate in both sexes, 2  increased sexual pleasure with increased stimulation and further increased muscle tension. Also, respiration continues at an elevated level. Both men and women may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this stage. Prolonged time in the plateau phase without progression to the orgasmic phase may result in sexual frustration. 3 Orgasm phase Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle and is experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs. Women also experience uterine and vaginal contractions. Orgasms are often associated with other involuntary actions, including vocalizations and muscular spasms in other areas of the body and a generally euphoric sensation. Heart rate is increased even further 4 Resolution phase The resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. The refractory period, which is part of the resolution phase, is the time frame in which usually a man is unable to orgasm again, though women can also experience a refractory period. Understanding “The Chemistry of Love: lust, attraction, and attachment ” THE SCIENCE OF LOVE Research has shown that all of these crazy, haywire feelings and physical reactions are, in fact, led by the brain and the chemicals released as a result of attraction and desire. Experts believe that three neurotransmitters (chemical messengers that transmit impulses (i.e. messages) between nerve cells) play a significant role during the initial stages of love. According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers, romantic love can be broken down into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Each category is characterized by its own set of hormones stemming from the brain (Table 1). Figure 3. : Love can be distilled into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Though there are overlaps and subtleties to each, each type is characterized by its own set of hormones. Testosterone and estrogen drive lust; dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin create attraction; and oxytocin and vasopressin mediate attachment. 3 Lust – Testosterone and Estrogen The first stage of romantic love, lust is defined as having an intense sexual desire towards someone, therefore, lust is driven by having a desire to achieve sexual gratification. This is based on an evolutionary need to reproduce, something that is common among all living species. It is through reproduction that we are able to pass on our genes and this aids in contributing to the continuation of our species. The hypothalamus of your brain plays a major role in lust as it stimulates the production of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. It is a common misconception that these hormones should be labelled as female and male respectively, as these play a role in both women and men’s physiology and sexuality. Testosterone is known to increase libido in both genders. In women, the effects of testosterone may be less significant than in men due to the presence of higher levels of estrogen. However, estrogen promotes the function of two hormones, testosterone, which increases sex drive, and oxytocin, commonly referred to as ‘the love hormone’ which is released during physical contact and sexual climax. It is little wonder then that women report being more sexually aroused during the ovulation stage of their menstrual cycle when estrogen levels are at their peak. Lust then leads to the next stage of love, which is attraction. Attraction – Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin Attraction, although regarded as a distinct category in the stages of love, is closely related to lust and while one can be linked to the other and vice versa, they can also be mutually exclusive (i.e. one can occur without the other). Attraction is associated with the ‘reward’ pathways in the brain that influence our behavior. The ‘reward’ pathway is connected to parts of your brain that control memory and behavior and begin in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and prefrontal cortex, this is where neurons release dopamine to induce feelings of pleasure when we do something that feels good to us. The VTA forms an important part of your brain’s reward circuit which is considered to be a primitive, evolutionary neural network. Some of the structures that make up this reward network or circuit include the hippocampus, amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, all of which are stimulated by pleasure- inducing behaviors such as food consumption, sex and even gambling or drug use. Dopamine, which is produced by your hypothalamus, is released during the stage of attraction, specifically when we spend time with someone we are attracted to or when we engage in sexual intercourse with them. Dopamine is a natural stimulant that fills you with emotions of ecstasy, this is often why the way falling in love feels is regarded as the natural equivalent to the high experienced from taking an illicit drug. Dopamine is also involved in focus and attention, which explains why you cannot get that one special person out of your head and when you are with them as, during this stage, you are ‘hyper-focused’ on their presence and the way they make you feel. Another hormone that is released during the stage of attraction is norepinephrine. Norepinephrine, also referred to as noradrenaline, may sound familiar to you, this is because it plays an important role in our ‘fight or flight’ response to stressful situations and keeps us alert. When it comes to love, the combination of dopamine and norepinephrine allows us to feel energetic, euphoric and even giddy. These hormones may also lead to insomnia and a decreased appetite. Basically, these are why you can be so attracted to someone that you can’t sleep or eat. Serotonin is the final hormone associated with attraction. This hormone is a vital neurotransmitter that aids in the regulation of social behaviour, mood, memory, appetite, digestion and sexual desire. Interestingly, it is believed that serotonin levels begin to decline during the attraction phase. Cortisol (also known as the stress hormone) levels increase during the initial stage of falling in love, which allows for our 4 bodies to deal with the ‘crisis’ or ‘stressful situation’ that romantic love is perceived by the body to be on a physiological level. As chemicals flood the reward centre of the brain, our hearts race, palms sweat, cheeks flush and we are overwhelmed with emotions of anxiety and passion. Attachment – Oxytocin and Vasopressin The final stage of falling in love is attachment, this is the predominant factor in defining the success of long-term relationships. Although the previous stages of lust and attraction are seen as exclusive to a more romantically euphoric stage of falling in love, the attachment stage refers to a more meaningful bond developing between two people, moving a romantic relationship to an advanced level of falling in love wholeheartedly. The two main hormones involved in the stage of attachment include oxytocin, as well as vasopressin. Oxytocin is referred to as ‘the love hormone’ or ‘the cuddle hormone’ is also produced by the hypothalamus and is released in substantial amounts during sexual intercourse and is stimulated through skin-to-skin contact. Interestingly, oxytocin is also released during childbirth and breastfeeding. It may seem like the same hormone is responsible for a strange combination of activities, however, what all of these have in common is a form of bonding and attachment. Therefore, oxytocin, or OT, plays an important role in forging bonds representative of the depth of love and attachment to a partner as it heightens the feelings of calmness, security and contentment that are so often linked to bonding with a mate2. The second hormone involved in the phase of attachment is one that is released in large quantities directly after having sex. The pituitary gland in both men and women release vasopressin. Experts believe that vasopressin plays a role in social interactions between humans and encourages pair-bonding (monogamous, long-term relationships). Researchers have also noted that this hormone may in actual fact, have a taming effect on more promiscuous people, thus, when this hormone is increased after sex with someone that you are in love with, this may affect your brain by triggering your neural reward system which stimulates feelings of happiness, encouraging you to want to stay with that person as a result. These two hormones provide us with an explanation as to why euphoric love will begin to fade as attachment and long-term love grow 5 Gender and Sexual Diversity Gender and Sexual Diversity (GSD), or simply sexual diversity, refers to all the diversities of sex characteristics, sexual orientations and gender identities, without the need to specify each of the identities, behaviors, or characteristics that form this plurality. Overview In the Western world, generally simple classifications are used to describe sexual orientation (heterosexuals, homosexuals and bisexuals), gender identity (transgender and cisgender), and related minorities (intersex), gathered under the acronyms LGBT or LGBTI (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual people, and sometimes intersex people); however, other cultures have other ways of understanding the sex and gender systems. Over the last few decades, some sexology theories have emerged, such as Kinsey theory and queer theory, proposing that this classification is not enough to describe the sexual complexity in human beings and, even, in other animal species. For example, some people may feel an intermediate sexual orientation between heterosexual and bisexual (heteroflexible) or between homosexual and bisexual (homoflexible). It may vary over time, too, or include attraction not only towards women and men, but to all the spectrum of sexes and genders (pansexual). In other words, within bisexuality there exists a huge diversity of typologies and preferences that vary from an exclusive heterosexuality to a complete homosexuality (Kinsey scale). Sexual diversity includes intersex people, those born with a variety of intermediate features between women and men. It also includes all transgender and transsex identities which do not frame within the binary gender system and, like sexual orientation, may be experienced in different degrees in between cisgender and transsexuality, such as genderfluid people. Lastly, sexual diversity also includes asexual people, who feel disinterest in sexual activity; and all those who consider that their identity cannot be defined, such as queer people. Socially, sexual diversity is claimed as the acceptance of being different but with equal rights, liberties, and opportunities within the Human Rights framework. In many countries, visibility of sexual diversity is vindicated during Pride Parades. Sexually Transmitted Infection STI s are diseases that are passed from one person to another. The most common STIs are: chlamydia, syphilis, trichomonas, chancroid, genital herpes, hepatitis B and HIV infection. Some STDs, such as syphilis and HIV can also be transmitted through exposure to contaminated blood and from a pregnant woman to the unborn child. Table below was presents the sexually transmitted infection Table 1. The Different Types, Symptoms, and Treatments of Sexually Transmitted Infection. Types of Diseases and Description or Curable Uncurable Pictures Symptoms 6 1. Chlamydia A certain type of Antibiotics can bacteria easily treat chlamydia pain or Fortunately, if discomfort caught early during sex or enough, urination syphilis is green or yellow easily treated discharge from with the penis or antibiotics. vagina However, syphilis pain in the lower infection in a abdomen newborn can be fatal. That’s why it’s important for all pregnant women to be screened for syphilis. 2. Syphilis The first symptom If earlier If late to appear is a small diagnose diagnosed and round sore, known treated with treated as a chancre. It can antibiotics develop on your genitals, anus, or mouth. It’s painless but very infectious. Later symptoms include: rash, fatigue, fever. Headaches, joint pain 3. HIV/ AIDS HIV can damage the There’s no cure immune system and for HIV yet, raise the risk of but treatment contracting other options are viruses or bacteria and available to certain cancers. manage it. Symptoms : fever, Early and chills, aches and pains, effective swollen lymph nodes, treatment can sore throat, headache help people Nausea. with HIV live as long as 7  those without HIV. 4. Gonorrhea Gonorrhea is another If earlier common bacterial diagnosed STD. It’s also known as curable and “the clap.” treated with present symptoms may antibiotics include: a white, yellow, beige, or green- colored discharge from the penis or vagina pain or discomfort during sex or urination more frequent urination than usual itching around the genitals sore throat 5. Pubic lice (‘crabs’) “Crabs” is another Pubic lice can name for pubic lice. be treated with They’re tiny insects over-the- that can take up counter lice- residence on your killing pubic hair. Like head medications. lice and body lice, they feed on human blood. Common symptoms of pubic lice include: itching around the genitals or anus small pink or red bumps around the genitals or anus low-grade fever lack of energy 8 6. Trichomoniasis Also known as “trich.” Trich can be It’s caused by a tiny treated with protozoan organism antibiotics. that can be passed from one person to another through genital contact. When symptoms do develop, they may include: discharge from the vagina or penis burning or itching around the vagina or penis pain or discomfort during urination or sex frequent urination In women, trich- related discharge often has an unpleasant or “fishy” smell. 7. Herpes Shortened name for There’s no cure the herpes simplex for herpes yet. virus. (HSV). Most But common symptom of medications herpes is blistery sores. are available to In the case of genital help control herpes, these sores outbreaks and develop on or around alleviate the the genitals. In oral pain of herpes herpes, they develop sores. The on or around the same mouth. medications can also lower your chances of passing herpes to your sexual partner. 8. Hepatitis B It is a virus that Although there 9  spreads through is no cure, contact with body there is a fluids and blood, so it vaccine to can be transmitted prevent through sexual hepatitis B intercourse. Hepatitis infection. B infection is also possible through sharing of needles, razors, and toothbrushes. Nausea Abdominal pain Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes) Over time, scarring of the liver (cirrhosis) and liver cancer can develop. 9. Chancroid It is more common in About half the Africa and Asia. It time when causes painful lumps untreated. in the genital area that can progress to open sores. Antibiotics can cure the infection; chancroid is caused by bacterial infection with Haemophilus ducreyi. One or more sores or raised bumps on the genitals. A narrow, red border surrounds the sores. 10. Scabies This parasite is not Prescription necessarily sexually creams can transmitted, since it cure a scabies can affect any area of infestation. the skin. However, scabies is often spread during sexual contact. Extreme itching that is worse at night. The 10  skin appears to have a pimple-like rash, as shown in the above photo. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF CONTRACEPTION Table 2. Presents the Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception NATURAL METHOD ARTIFICIAL METHOD 1. Calendar Method Also called as 1. Oral Also known as the rhythm Contraceptives the pill, oral method, this contraceptives natural contain method of synthetic family estrogen and planning progesterone. involves Estrogen refraining suppresses the from coitus FSH and LH during the to suppress days that the ovulation, woman is while fertile. progesterone According to decreases the the permeability menstrual of the cervical cycle, 3 or 4 mucus to limit days before the sperm’s and 3 or 4 access to the days after ova. ovulation, the woman is Side effects for likely to OCs are nausea, conceive. weight gain, The process headache, breast in calculating tenderness, for the breakthrough woman’s safe bleeding, vaginal days is infections, mild achieved hypertension, when the and depression. woman records her menstrual cycle for six 11  months. 2. Cervical Mucus The basis of this 2. Hormonal A hormonal Method method is the Injections injection changes in the consists of cervical mucus medroxyproge during sterone, a ovulation. The progesterone, fertile days of a and given once woman every 12 weeks according to this intramuscularl method is as y. long as the The injection cervical mucus is inhibits copious and ovulation and watery and a day causes after it. changes in the Therefore, she endometrium must avoid and the coitus during cervical these days. mucus. After administration the site should not be massaged so it could absorb slowly. It has an effectiveness of almost 100%, making it one of the most popular choices for birth control. 12 3. Coitus Interruptus This is one of 3. Intrauterine An IUD is a the oldest Device small, T- methods of shaped object contraception. that is inserted The couple still into the uterus proceeds with via the vagina. the coitus, but It prevents the man fertilization by withdraws the creating a moment he local sterile ejaculates to inflammatory emit the condition to spermatozoa prevent outside of the implantation. vagina. The The IUD is disadvantage fitted only by of this method the physician is the pre- and inserted ejaculation after the fluid that woman’s contains a few menstrual flow spermatozoa to be sure that that may cause she is not fertilization. pregnant. Coitus interruptus is The device only 75% contains effective progesterone because of this. and is effective for 5 to 7 years. 4. Lactation Through Male Condoms The male Amenorrhea Method exclusive condom is breastfeeding a latex or of the infant, synthetic the woman is rubber able to sheath suppress that is ovulation placed on through the the erect method of penis lactation before amenorrhea vaginal method. penetratio n to trap However, if the sperm the infant is during 13 not ejaculatio exclusively n. breastfed, this method would It can prevent not be an STIs and can effective birth be bought control over-the- method. counter without any fitting needed. VASECTOMY Males undergo vasectomy, which is executed through a small incision made on each side of the scrotum. The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged to block the passage of the sperm. TUBAL LIGATION In women, tubal ligation is performed by occluding the fallopian tubes through cutting, cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of the both the sperm and the ova. After menstruation and before ovulation, the procedure is done through a 14 small incision under the woman’s umbilicus. 15