5) CHAPTER 5.1.pdf

Morphology Study Notes 1 Pragmatics Language use in context Semantics Meaning...

Morphology Study Notes 1 Pragmatics Language use in context Semantics Meaning Syntax Phrases Morphology Words Language use in context c Phonology Sound patterns Phonetics Sounds History of morphology - Old Babylonian clay tablets (1600 BC). - Panini (300-600 BC) - 19th century Germany - 20th century USA MORPHOLOGY Morphology Morphology inquiry studies the complexity of words. Study Notes Morphology Study Notes 2 Morphology Study Notes 3 ★ Morphology- the study of the shape of words. WORD à Morphology- the covariation in the form and meaning of groups of words. - Even though the concept of a word is central to morphology, it is really hard to define. - Words consist of morphemes. WORD - Morpheme = a morpheme is a minimal indivisible (cannot be divided further) unit of meaning or grammatical function. Word-s Word-y Word-like Re-word Word Word-ing Word-ily Mis-word Lexeme Word form Pass-word - A lexeme is an abstract - A word form is a concrete word- Word-play entity with no the combination of a lexeme + a phonological form of its set of grammatical own. meanings/functions. Example: han gry o Dictionary (han-gree) adj. o Small caps A state of anger caused by a alck of food: hunger causing a negative change in emotional state. Activity: Q: Which of the following words are simple and which are complex? Student For each complex word, divide its parts with a hyphen (ex. book-s). student student-s cats, day, looked, dishonesty - cat-s - look-ed - dis-honest-y Laugh Q: What is a “word”? Laugh-s laugh-ing ★ Word- smallest grammatically independent unit of meaning. Laugh-ed But what about….? - “a” - “look up” - Compounds: “blackbird” - Lexically empty words: “the” - Polysemous words - West Greenlandic: passinngilluinnarpara (I didn’t understand at all). Student The same word or Students different? Morphology Study Notes 4 Morphology Study Notes 5 Morphemes: ★ Morpheme- a minimal indivisible (cannot be divided further) unit of meaning or grammatical function. - Child, children, childish, childlike, childness, childhood, stepchild. Grammatical function - Tense (eg Past: walk-ed) - Aspect (eg Progressive: walk-ing) - Number (eg Plural: dog-s) - Person (eg person: He walk-s) Morphemes Free Bound - Morphemes that can - Morphemes whose meanings stand on their own as depend on the base and single words. cannot stand on their own as (eg dog). signle words. (eg -s in dogs). - Free morphemes 1. Lexical morpheme: Content or “picture” words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs). 2. Functional morpheme: Grammatical words (articles, prepositions, conjunctions, etc) EXAMPLE: She saw a red book on the table. Bases, stems & roots ★ Base/stem- simple or complex unit to which morpheme attaches. Un-friend-ly ★ Root- base that cannot be broken down further. Bound morphemes 1. Affixes: bound morphemes that change the meaning or grammatical function of their bases. 2. Paramorphemes: bound morphemes that technically do not adhere to the criteria. 3. Bound roots: bound morphemes that have lexical meaning (i.e, umntu [isiXhosa]). Morphology Study Notes 6 Morphology Study Notes 7 Do all languages have morphology? ISOLATING Yoruba Nwon o maa gba ponun mewd losoose They FUT prog get pound ten weekly ‘They will be getting £10 a week’ ANALYTIC English He love -d to eat chocolate-s He love-past INF eat chocolate-pl SYNTHETIC Swahili Ndovu wa-wili wa -ki -song -ana zi-umia-zo ni nyika Elephants PL-two 3PL-SUBORD-jostle-RECP 3SG-hurt-REL is grass ‘when two elephants jostle, what is hurt is the grass’ POLYSYNTHETIC West Greenlandic Paasi-nngil-luinnar-para ilaa-juma-sutit Understand-not-completely-1SG.SBJ.3SG.OBJ.IND come-want-2SG.PTCP ‘I didn’t understand at all that you wanted to come along’ Morphology Study Notes 8 Morphology Study Notes 9 TALK Warm-up 2 In the following sentence identify: Talk o A free lexical morpheme Talks o A free functional morpheme Talked o A suffix Talking o A prefix Talkative o An affixoid Talkativeness Talker Linguistics often overemphasize or restate interesting vocabulary. Morpheme = a minimal unit of meaning of grammatical function. Warm-up 3 Warm-up 1 What is the base/stem and what is the root? o Dishonestly Base/stem Base/stem: simple or Dis-honesty complex unit to which Dishonest-y morpheme attaches. Root Root: base that cannot be X- honest- X broken down further. Morphology Study Notes 10 Morphology Study Notes 11 Lexemes and word forms Inflection - Affixation that creates word forms. - Inflectional affixes do not produce new words but indicate the grammatical function of a word. § He play-s, he play-ed. § Loud, loud-er, loud-est. Grammatical features o Nouns/ pronouns/ adjectives § Number (singular/plural) Catà cat-s § Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) I, you, he, she § Case (role [subject, object, etc]), Grammatical gender. He likes pizza I like him Inflection Case Study: Sesotho number Inflection Singular Plural Prefix Creates word forms Selêpê dilêpê Suffix Affixes Mosadi basadi Infix Derivation Creates lexemes Grammatical features Circumfix o Verbs: § Tense (present/past/future) I walk-ed § Aspect (finished/ongoing) I am walk-ing § Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) He walk-s § Number (singular, plural) I am, we are Morphology Study Notes 12 Morphology Study Notes 13 Inflection Case Study: Tshivenda tense Tense Tshivenda Translation Derivation Affixation that creates lexemes. Often derivation changes the part of speech of the original base. Past Musadzi o bike muroho The woman cooked § Encourage (verb) à encourage-ment (noun) vegetables § Critic à criticism à criticize à critical. Present Musadzi u bike muroho The women cooks vegetables Derivation: Examples (noun) Derived nouns Future Musadzi u do bike muroho The women will cook Free (Adj) à Free-dom (N) vegetables Flexible (Adj) à Flexibil-ity (N) Friend (N) à Friend-ship (N) Participate (V) à Particip-ation (N) Inflection Case Study: isiZulu tense Shy (Adj) à Shy-ness (N) Tense Tshivenda Translation Child (N) à Child-hood (N) Speak (V) à Speak-er (N) Past Umnumzana ubase umlilo The headman kindled a fire Present Umnumzana ubasa umlilo The headman kindles a fire Derivation: Examples (verbs) Derived verbs Final (Adj) à final-ise (V) Future Umnumzana uzobasa/ The headman will kinder a Symbol (N) à Symbol-ize (V) uyboasa umlilo fire Black (Adj) à Black-en (V) Write (V) à re-write (V) Clear (Adj) à Clar-ify (V) Plane (N) à de-plane (V) Derivation: Examples (adjectives) Derived adjectives Joy (N) à joy-ful (Adj) Drink (V) à drink-able (Adj) Universe (N) à Univers-al (Adj) Politics (N) à Politic-al (Adj) Clue (N) à Clue-less (Adj) Create (V) à Creat-ive (Adj) Nerve (N) à Nerv-ous (Adj) Rock (N) à Rock-y (Adj)  Morphology Study Notes 14 Morphology Study Notes 15 How do we tell inflection and derivation apart? Tree diagrams Inflection Derivation Components: Morphemes Part of speech labels Same meaning as base New meaning Branches Same part of speech New part of speech (sometimes) Adj N Adj QUIZ: Clue - less Joy-ful Hope-ful Adj Adj V N Adj Colour -ful (prefix) V Adj Un do able -ful = derivational morpheme because it changes the meaning and word class. Inflection vs derivation Dichotomy or continuum? Inflection Evaluative morphemes? Derivation Feminine morphemes? Diminutive morphemes? Evaluative morphemes Pejorative morphemes Spanish: Amigo ‘friend’ à amig-acho ‘friend, slightly disprespectful iciBemba: umuntu ‘person’ à icimuntu ‘huge/bad person’ Japanese: -め (-me), e.g. 「化け物め」 (bakemono-me) "That damn monster!“ Portuguese: jornal ‘newspaper’ à jornaleco ‘low-quality newspaper’ Morphology Study Notes 16 Morphology Study Notes 17 Compounding Diminutive morpheme Creation of complex lexeme by adjoining at least two stems Diminutives indicate small size § Tree + root English: dogg-ie, book-let § Flower + pot § Red + head Afrikaans: vrou-tjie, kind-jie, hemp-ie iciBemba: a-ka-muntu ‘small person’ Head = the part which contributes the most semantic and syntactic information to the isiXhosa: itafile ‘table’ à itafilana ‘small table’ whole. Compounds and trees Warm-up 1 - What are the inflectional morphemes in this sentence? N She is younger than me and always dresses in the latest style. Adj N Red head Warm-up 2 o What other lexemes can be derived from the base “child”? N Childish Childishly Childishness N Prep Childless passer by Childlike Childlikeness Childhood Stepchild Two types of compounds Childbirth Compounds Morphological relationships Endocentric Exocentric Meaning “within” compound Meaning “outside” compound Bookcase/ flowerpot/ bookmark redhead/Facebook/ birdbrain Endocentric compounds in isiXhosa a) inyokokhulu ‘grandmother’ (from inyoko ‘your mother’ + khulu ‘older’) b) umlimandlela ‘small pathway in a field’ (ilima ‘cultivate’ + indlela ‘alley’) c) inkcubabuchopho ‘clever/intelligent person’ (inkcuba ‘inquisitive’ + buchopho ‘brain’) d) indlulamthi ‘giraffe’ (indlula ‘surpass’ + mthi ‘tree’) e) intakobusi ‘honey bird’ (intaka ‘bird’ + ubusi ‘honey’) Morphology Study Notes 18 Morphology Study Notes 19 Endocentric compounds in Zulu Warm-up 1 Is the suffix – ity (i.e pur-ity) umakhalekhukhwini Uma- -khala e- -khukhu -ini In English an inflectional or a derivational morpheme? NC1a scream from pocket from Justify your answer using at least two examples. “Scream from the pocket” = ….? Warm-up 2 Come up with one endocentric compound and exocentric compound, both “skree van die broeksak” = …? containing the root “book”. Reduplication Reduplication Part of the base or the complete base is copied and attached to the base. Types of reduplication - - Complete Partial Reduplication - Echo-reduplication Complete reduplication The whole base is copied - Bye-bye Complete Partial Echo Partial reduplication Part of the base is copied - The whole base is copied Part of the base is The base is Echo reduplication And pasted copied and pasted reduplicated The base is “echoed” but altered in some way. The copy is not identical. with some phonetic - Splish-splash, super-duper chit-chat, ding-dong, ping-pong, zig-zag. difference Warm-up 3 Which type of reduplication does this example show? 1. Malagasy: Maimbo ‘stinky’ à maimbo maimbo ‘somewhat stinky’ 2. CiNyanja Kavuluvulu ‘whirlwind’ 3. Celtic Ruaille buaille ‘commotion’ Morphology Study Notes 20 Morphology Study Notes 21 Concatenative morphological patterns Morphemes are ordered one after another 1. Affixation: Un+read+able 2. Compounding: Flower+pot 3. Reduplication: Gou+gou, “lets play teacher-teacher” Concatenative Morphology Non-concatenative Morphology Non-concatenative morphological patterns Not created by adding morphemes 1. Changing the shape of the base (base modification) 2. Changing the lexeme without changing its base (conversion). Base modification Changing the shape of the base o Changing anything to do with consonants, vowels, or stress. Chalcatongo Miztec (Mexico) (Stress) káɁba ‘filth’ à káɁbá ‘dirty’ xaɁá ‘foot’ à xáɁá ‘standing’ What does this mean for our definition of a “base”? Morphology Study Notes 22 Morphology Study Notes 23 Redefining “base” 2. Alphabetisms ★ Previous definition The initial letter of a group of words, each of which is pronounced as you would say it Base/stem- simple or complex unit to which morpheme attaches. when reciting the alphabet. Dis-honesty - HIV - USA ★ New definition - CD The base of morphologically complex word is the element to which a - SPCA morphological operation applies. - ID - ATM Conversion A word with one word class is “converted” to another word class without 3. Clipping changing the form (stress may change). Multi-syllable words are reduced to a shoer form. - Gas < gasoline “Category change” - Fax < facsimile - Google (noun) à to google something (verb) - Ad < advertisement - Friend (noun) à to friend (verb) someone on Facebook. - Fan < fanatic - Flu < influenza Conversion or zero-derivation?? - Phone < telephone § Both terms refer to the same concept: - Names: Ed, Sam, Tom, Beth. - Zero-derivation says that a phonologically empty morpheme changes the part of speech of the world. 4. Blends The combination of reduced forms of two roots to form a new word. V - Smog = smoke + fog. - Sport = spoon + fork - Motel = motor + hotel N V - Brunch = breakfast + lunch Google Ø Other ways of creating words - Borrowing (taking words over from another language). - Back formation (creating a word on the basis of an existing word). Non-morphological word formation Not all word formation process change the meaning of a word, so for some 1. Borrowing people they are “not morphological”. - Borrowing (taking words over from another language) - Acronym “AIDS”. § Glitzy (Yiddish) - Alphabetisms “USA”. § Piano (Italian) - Clipping “fridge < refrigerator”. § Yogurt (Turkish) - Blends “froyo < frozen + yoghurt”. - Loan-translation/calque 1. Acronyms § Direct translation of elements The initial letters of a group of words which are pronounced as a normal word. § Skyscraper à Wolken-kratzer - UNESCO (German) - SIM card - LASER 2. Back formation - RADAR - Back formation (creating a word on the basis of an existing word) § To baby sit < babysitter § Mix < mixture § Addict < addiction § Edit < editor Morphology Study Notes 24 Morphology Study Notes 25 Exercise QUESTION 3: Can you identify the processes involved in the following examples? o Identify: - I like this sofa – it’s comfy. i) A free morpheme - You don’t need to button it up. ii) An affixoid - He words for NASA. iii) A bound morpheme - I use my PIN at the ATM machine. - Would you prefer a decaf? He is an overachiever. - Do you want to have brunch? Free-standing “picture” words with lexical meaning (cat, dog, run, eat) QUESTION 1: o What is one word form of the lexeme BELIEVE? Lexical o Name three other lexemes that are in the same word family as BELIEVE. Free QUESTION 2: Free-standing words with Functional grammatical meaning/function (the, or, over, that) Spanish Hablar To speak Hablador Speaker QUESTION 4: Hablo I speak o Give an example of a free lexical morpheme and a free functional morpheme Hablando Speaking from the following sentence: Trabajar To work Trabajador Worker The man often plays golf. trabajo I work trabajando working o Identify the different morphemes: Bound 1. Habl (root: speak) morphemes 2. Trabaj (root: word) 3. -ar (infinitive suffix) 4. -ador (person who Xs) 5. -o (1st person singular “I”) 6. -ando (progressive: “ing”) Affixes Paramorphemes Bound roots Bound morphemes Bound morphemes Bound morphemes that change the that technically do that have lexical meaning of not adhere to the meaning grammatical function criteria of their bases Morphology Study Notes 26 Morphology Study Notes 27 Word formation Non- Concatenative concatenative Base Affixation Compounding Reduplictaion Conversion modification Paramorphemes Bound morphemes that technically do not adhere to the criteria Created word forms No change in concept No change in word class Zero Cranberry Inflection morphemes morpheme Affixation Creates lexemes Derivation Change of concept Sometimes: change of Phonologically empty Semantically empty word class Run (verb) run- Ø (noun) Bridegroom ; receive QUESTION 5: o Is the -s in “he play-s” inflectional of derivational? Why? o Is the -er in “play-er” inflectional or derivational? Why? Name two other words that also use this suffix-er. Two types of compounds 1. Endocentric 2. Exocentric ★ Endocentric: meaning “within” compound. ★ Exocentric: meaning “outside” compound. QUESTION 6: o Is the compound “hotshot” endocentric or exocentric? Explain why? Morphology Study Notes 28 Morphology Study Notes 29 Reduplication Homonyms ★ Homonyms- two or more words having the same spelling [homographs] or pronunciation [homophones] or both. Bat (V) à bat (N; equipment) = conversion Reduplication Bat (V) à Bat (N; animal) Wind (air) vs wind (move by turning) two separate roots. Row (column) vs row (your boat) = two separate roots. PIE *rei and PIE *ere Complete Partial Echo Mermaids - Mid-14c., meremayde, literally “maid of sea”, from Middle English mere “sea, lake” + maid. - This was a compound word in the 14th century à “mere” fell into disuse The whole base is copied Part of the base is The base is and is now classified as a cranberry morpheme. And pasted copied and pasted reduplicated with some phonetic difference QUESTION 7: o What type of reduplication is shown in the Dakota (spoken in North America) example below? hãska] 'tall (singular)’ à [hãskaska] 'tall (plural)' Base modification - Changing the shape of the base without adding morphemes (altering a consonant, vowel, or stress) QUESTION 8: o Where does Yoruba fall on the typology scale? Why? - Hou[s]e (noun) à hou[z]e (verb) Yoruba - Stress in English: Conversion or base modification? Nwon o maa gba ponun mewd losoose Discount vs discount They fut prog get pound ten weekly insult vs insult = base modification. ‘They will be getting £10 a week’ Conversion Zero-derivation ‘Hulle sal £10 a week’ kry’ - Change in part of speech without changing the form Hammer (N) à hammer (V) Plant (N) à plant (V) Drink (V) à drink (N) - Some linguists prefer the term “zero-derivation” to account for the change in wrd class. - What if the word class doesn’t change? Not conversion. Semantic shift: fox (animal) v fox (person) Morphology Study Notes 30 Morphology Study Notes 31 Warm-up 1 o Is the -s in the following examples free or bound? QUESTION 1: § Cat-s o Consider the following words. Can you spot the allomorphy? § Dog-s § Watch-es Insane Illogical Inexpensive Illiterate Allomorphy Incomplete Illegitimate Allomorphs = phonological variants of morphemes under different circumstances Impossible Irrelevant You can have allomorphy in roots or stems. Immature Irresponsible Affix allomorphy All of these words contain the prefix - Korean accusative suffix (direct object) /in-/, which means ‘not’, but some are - -ul phonologically different. Ton ‘money’ à ton-ul ‘money-acc’ Chayk ‘book’ à chayk-ul ‘book-acc’ o Consider the following words. Can you spot the allomorphy? - -lul Im = Before labial sounds Tali ‘leg’ à tali-lul ‘leg-acc’ Il = Before laterals (l-sounds) Sakwa ‘apple’ à sakwa-lul ‘apple-acc’ Ir = Before r-sounds In = everywhere else Normally = -ul After vowels = -lul Stem allomorphy English: [sli:p] ‘sleep’ (slaap) à [slɛp-t] ‘slept’ (geslaap) [fi:l] ‘feel’ (voel) à [fɛl-t] ‘felt’ (gevoel) Complementary distribution Allomorphs that have the same meaning but occur in different environments are in complementary distribution Regular vs Irregular allomorphy Example /-s/ plural suffix English Sometimes allomorphy is regular and follows a rule (i.e., -s after voiceless [-s] after unvoiced consonants consonants cat-s). We call this phonological allomorphy [-z] after voiced consonants [-əz] after sibilants (fricatives, affricates, etc.) Other times, allomorphs are irregular, and it is hard to see how they are related. They are not similar at all in pronunciation. This is called suppletion. Morphology Study Notes 1 Morphology Study Notes 2 Suppletion QUESTION 2: Suppletive allomorphs are allomorphs that are not similar in pronunciation and are irregular. o How many allomorphs of the Turkish first-person possessive suffix are there? Go (present) à went (past) Good à better à best Base Poss. Be à was à were Mice à mouse Ev ‘house’ Ev-im ‘my house’ Goose à geese Köy ‘village’ Köy-üm ‘my village’ Say à said Catch à caught Yol ‘way’ Yol-um ‘my way’ Buy à bought Ad ‘name’ Ad-im ‘my name’ Suppletion...continuum? Baba ‘father’ Baba-m ‘my father’ In-complete Teach/taught Good/ better Dil ‘language’ Dil-im ‘my language’ Ir-religious Think/thought Go/went Tuz ‘salt’ Tuz-um ‘my salt’ Gün ‘day’ Gün-üm ‘my day’ Phonological Weak Strong QUESTION 3: allomoprhy suppletion suppletion o Spanish verbal forms of the verb “to go” include: ir ‘to go’ Vas ‘you go’, vamos ‘we go’ Allomorphy vs Base medication? Fui ‘I went’, fuimos ‘we went’ What’s the difference? Iba ‘I used to go’, ibas ‘you used to go’ - Allomorphy is the phonological variation of 1 morpheme (plural suffix –s has 3 allomorphs), but the concept doesn’t change! (Inflection!!) o What type of allomorphy does this pattern show? What about when the concept/part of speech does change? Then it is a case of QUESTION 4: word formation à base modification o The English past participle suffix spelled –ed has three allomorphs: [d], [t] and [əd]. How are they distributed? Allomorphy à Inflection (word form creation) - Plural, tense change, etc. Learned [lərn-d] Begged [bɛg-d] Base modification à Lexeme creation Asked [ask-t] - Change in concept Helped [hɛlp-t] - Change in word class Expected [ɛkspɛkt-əd] Divided [dəvaid-əd] [d] after voiced consonants/vowels except [d] Inflection Derivation [t] after voiceless consonants except [t] [əd] after [t] or [d] Allomorphy Base modification Continuum rather than dichotomy Morphology Study Notes 3 Morphology Study Notes 4 Warm-up 1: Warm-up 6: o Which processes of word formation are shown in these examples? o How many words can you think of with the suffix –less (i.e., child-less)? o How many words can you think of with the suffix –ard (as in sluggard)? 1. “flipflop” 2. “bridezilla”, “staycation”, “webinar” Not all morphemes are used equally frequently! 3. LOL 4. JPEG, UNESCO Morphological producivity 5. Tillamook: A morphological rule or pattern is productive if it can be applied to new bases and new words can be created from it. [ɡaɬ] 'eye’ → [ɬɡaɬ] 'eyes’ (ɬ-ɡaɬ) [təq] 'break’ → [qtəq] 'they break’ (q-təq) ★ Productivity = how “extendable” or “apply-able” a morphological pattern is to Warm-up 2: create new words (wordforms or lexemes) o The English indefinite article displays allomorphy in certain contexts. What conditions the allomorphy? What are the two allomorphs? What type of allomorphy is this? A car An apple A street An oven A flower An eagle Warm-up 3: o Morphemes in isiZulu sometimes undergo palatalisation to dissimilate two labial sounds. Is this allomorphy regular (phonologcial) or irregular (suppletive)? /-lob-/ [-lɔb-] as in –loba (write) [-lɔʧ-] as in lotschwa (be written) /-lum-/ [-lum-] as in –luma (bite) [-luɲ-] as in lunywa (be bitten) Warm-up 4: o Possessive relationships in isiZulu display some phonological variance. What type of allomorphy is this? Ubaba (my/our father) Uyihlo (your father) Uyise (his/her/their father) Umama (my/our mother) Unyoko (your mother) Unina (his/her/their mother) Warm-up 5: Verb Can you please re-____ (verb) the oven? Adjective I will _____ (adj)-fully ____ (verb)-ize the paperwork. Verb My _____(noun)ship with her is very special. Noun He’s a little _____(adj)ish but super _____(verb)able Adjective Verb Morphology Study Notes 5 Morphology Study Notes 6 Productivity vs Creativity Productivity = gradable (not either/ or) Schultink: “Productivity as morphological phenomenon is the possibility which language users have to form an in principle uncountable number of new words unintentionally, by means of a morphological process which is the Creative Less productive More productive basis of the form-meaning correspondence of some words they know” (translated by Bo oij) Very noticeable More noticeable Less noticeable QUESTION 1: Morphological… o Japanese, Vietnamese, Chinese, Portuguese all follow the same morphological pattern. Are the following words examples of morphological creativity or productivity? Why? o Computerese, motherese, translationese, govermentese English: -ness English: -en Quiet-ness Black-en Loneli-ness Redd-en Productivity Creativity Loveli-ness Blind-ness Flatt-en Wid-en Hard-ness *yellow-en Joyful-ness *green-en *generous- *smooth-en ness *Bumpy-en A productive rule allows *washed- creative neologisms are always speakers to form new ness intentional formations that follow an words unconsciously and unproductive pattern unintentionally that & They immediately strike hearers and sound normal readers as new and unusual. **you notice these words right away** Example: -less/-loos Childless, kindloos, joyless, vreugdeloos **you may not notice neologisms formed with –less/-loos** Morphology Study Notes 7 Morphology Study Notes 8 2. Morphological restrictions What restricts productivity? - Some combinations are restricted because of morphological properties in Complex interaction of grammatical, social, pragmatic & processing the base. restrictions on the domain limit coinage. German: nominalizing -heit and –keit suffixes (-keit after –bar, -ig, -isch, -lich, -sam) 1. Phonological 2. Morphological Schön ‘pretty/mooi‘ à schön-heit ‘pretty-ness/ mooiheid’ 3. Semantic Christen ‘Christian/Christen’ à Christen-heit ‘Christenness’ 4. Pragmatic Nütz-lich ‘useful/nuttig’ à *nützlich-heit (nützlichkeit) 5. Borrowed words Les-baar ‘readable/leesbaar’ à *Lesbaar-heit (lesbaarkeit) 1. Phonological restrictions à Some phonotactic combinations are not allowed 3. Semantic restrictions à Some bases have prosodic (stress) requirements 1. Some combinations make no sense à Some phonological restrictions are random 2. Some combinations are blocked by a pre-existing word with the same meaning (synonymy blocking) English: patient-noun derivation {V-ee} (not if word ends in /i:/) Combinations that make no sense: English: prefixes de- and un- can only attach to reversible processes (V) (N) Interview à interview-ee Colonize à de-colonize Employ à employ-ee Construct à de-construct Free à *free-ee Murder à *de-murder Acompany à *accompany-ee Tie à un-tie Kill à *un-kill Stress restrictions See à *un-see - English –ize suffixation: {ADJ-ize} (not if word ends in stressed syllable): Synonymy blocking N à V Existing word has the meaning of the potential neologism Private à prívatìze Global à glóbalìze - Children Corrupt à *corrúptìze - To sweep secure à *secúrìze - Thief (Exceptions: synonymous pairs, i.e., curiosity = curiousness Random English –en only attaches to monosyllabic adjectival bases, and even if it’s 4. Pragmatic restrictions monosyllabic, sometimes it still doesn’t work - Neologism must be useful Black à black-en German: you wouldn’t add a feminine distinction to a “lesser” animal Red à redd-en Löwe ‘lion/leeu’ à Löw-in ‘lioness/ leeuwyfie’ Yellow à *yellow-en Käfer ‘beetle/gogga‘ à *käfer-in ‘beetle-ess/gogga-in’ Green à *green-en Pink à *pink-en Morphology Study Notes 9 Morphology Study Notes 10 5. Borrowed words - Borrowing morphological patterns from other languages QUESTION 1: What factors are restricting the formation of the following words? Verbal suffix “ify” (< ME ifien < Old French –ifier < Latin < -ificare (facio ‘make/do’) Reknow typicaly attaches to Latinate bases Cooker (the cooker is an artist) Fort-ify (fort < Lat fortis ‘strong’) QUESTION 2: *Strong-ify (Proto. Ger. strangaz) What is the domain of the suffix –scape as in landscape, seascape, cloudscape, skyscape, waterscape, winterscape, tablescape, etc.? In other words, what restricts the productivity/creativity of this suffix? QUESTION 2: QUESTION 3: Which processes are blocking the following formations? What conditions the productivity of the suffix –holic in the words alcoholic, shopaholic, workaholic, etc.? What are the bases? 1. *foot-s Alcohol-ic 2. *de-murder Shop-(a)holic 3. *corruptìze Choc-(a)holic Work-(a)holic Warm-up 1: Morphological Change From the word “alcoholic”, we have derived the words: Morphology (the shape and meaning of words) is very dynamic and changes! “chocaholic”, “shopaholic”, “workaholic”, etc., meaning “to be addicted to X”. Is this a case of morphological productivity or morphological creativity? Why? Cases of morphological change 1. Internal factors - Reanalysis (opacity across generations) - Folk etymologies Morphological productivity 2. External factors A morphological rule or pattern is productive if it can be applied to new bases - Language contact and new words can be created from it. Processes of morphological change Productivity = how “extendable” or “apply-able” a morphological pattern is to 1. Internal create new words (wordforms or lexemes) § Grammaticalization § Degrammaticalization § In-/decrease in productivity § Analogy § Exaptation § Rebracketing § Fossilization § Loss § Folk etymology 2. External § Borrowing Morphology Study Notes 11 Morphology Study Notes 12 1. Grammaticalization - The status of a morpheme may change from a free lexical morpheme, to a 5. Exaptation free functional morpheme, to a bound morpheme = grammaticalization - Morphological “recycling” - Repurposing linguistic “junk” 1) Example: will (want) à future auxiliary verb à affix - Roger Lass (1990) 1. I will it = I want it § Afrikaans adjectival –e inflection no longer syntactic number/case etc. à 2. I will go = future marker of lexical class 3. I’ll go = future - German linking elements: Freiheit-s-tag 2) Example: not à n’t (affix) - English verbal suffix –en (deepen) comes from earlier infinitival suffix i. He can not go ii. He can’t go 6. Rebracketing 3) Affixoids § [hamburg][-er] à [ham][burger] à Cheeseburger, double burger 2. Degrammaticalization § Greek [heliko][pteron] - The status of a morpheme may change from a bound morpheme to a free à heli-copter morpheme = lexicalization (a clue is that you can start to create word à Jetcopter, helipad forms, like plurals) 7. Fossilization Example: Capital-ism à there are many isms in this world. § When a morpheme is no longer productive and only occurs in a few words: -th as is width, height, depth 3. Productivity -ing as in underling, hireling, sibling - Morphological patterns can become more or less productive or may -ile, as in tactile, puerile, etc. gain/add restrictions. Example: Afrikaans –ery suffix was productive with positive verbs, now § Cranberry morphemes only forms new words with negative verbs (bakleiery) Example: -ess feminine suffix (authoress) is also out of fashion 8. Loss 2nd person -st suffix in English: thou dost, hast, etc. § Languages may lose morfemes - Old English diminutive –incel as in sċipincel = miniature ship - Morphological patterns can become more or less productive or may - Old English –sn formed nouns that denoted tools or instruments gain/add restrictions. - Old English –or formed adjectives: Example: Afrikaans –ery suffix was productive with positive verbs, now Slipan ‘slip’ à slipor ‘slippery’ only forms new words with negative verbs (bakleiery) Wacian ‘awake’ à wacor ‘vigilant’ Example: -ess feminine suffix (authoress) is also out of fashion 2nd person -st suffix in English: thou dost, hast, etc. 9. Folk etymology 4. Analogy § Folk etymology (similar to rebracketing = false analogy) OE ang + naegel “anguished nail” à “hangnail” - When speakers form a new word on the model (or by analogy with) another word. Crayfish < French creveis A = B, so C = X Ex: fling (used to be fling-ed) à Sting : stung = fling : flung Ex: change : changeable = wash : wash-able Morphology Study Notes 13 Morphology Study Notes 14 10. Borrowing Clitics § Borrowing morphemes from other languages: § Problems for defining words: Some words don’t surface as an entire word -ette (French), “small” (kitchen-ette) § “clitics” Micro/mega (Greek) “micro-manage” Words that form part of the pronunciation of a neighboring word -ism (Greek), “capital-ism” I’m Bob, what’s happening? § Affixoidal borrowing Clitics are like affixes in some respects, but like independent word forms in “mega-X” in German other respects § May go via a second language AàBàC Types of clitics § Simple clitics QUESTION 4: Can stand alone, but still phonologically and semantically dependent on host o Middle English word for “an apron” was “a naperon”. By which process of morphological change did “apron” come about? § Special clitic Bound to a host word QUESTION 5: o The word “emoji” sounds like it has to do with emo-tions, right? It actually comes § Enclitic vs proclitic from the Japanese e ‘picture’ and moji ‘character’. What process does this show? After vs before host QUESTION 6: Special clitics o The English phrase “let us” in “let us eat” (~allow us to eat) has been shortened § English: to “let’s”, as in “let’s eat” (plural command). The “let’s” has moved from lexical to Contractions: I’ve, I’d, I’m, etc. grammatical meaning. What is this called? Possessive –s: [My mother]’s house; [the queen of England]’s crown § German: Warm-up 1: an dem Flussà am Fluss, in dem Buch à im Buch In some dialects of English, “asparagus” is pronounced “sparrowgrass”. What type of language change is shown here? § Latin –que “and”: Plus plusque ‘more and more’, Me meosque ‘me and mine’, fames sitisque Warm-up 2: ‘hunger and thirst’ Slip, slippery -- *slipper? The Old English verb slipan “to slip” took the derivational suffix –or to create § Southern American English slipor ‘slippery’, although today, -er/or is no longer productive—the morpheme – He’s a nice’n, young’n er is now part of the stem. This is an example of ______. Clitics vs affixes Warm-up 3: 1. Clitics aren’t picky about bases, whereas affixes only attach to certain bases What kind of a morpheme is the n’t in the following examples? 2. Clitics can move around, affixes cannot I couldn’t sleep 3. Clitics are semantically predictable; affixes may have idiosyncratic meanings You shouldn’t drink and drive 4. Clitics don’t trigger suppletion, affixes do sometimes You mustn’t say that 5. If a morpheme prevents further affixation, it’s probably a clitic: 1. *He’s-s QUESTION 1: Is the –s morpheme in the following examples a clitic or an affix? Why? Dad’s shoes My dog’s leash The queen of England’s crown Morphology Study Notes 15 Morphology Study Notes 16 Morphology X Phonetics QUESTION 2: Electropalatography What kind of a morpheme is the n’t in the following examples? Sonographs & Ultrasounds I couldn’t sleep Aerodynamic measures You shouldn’t drink and drive Endoscopy You mustn’t say that MRI Waveform (airpressure) Research in morphology Spectrogram (frequency contents) Morphology is diverse— It is unusual because most of the interest it attracts has to do with how morphology interacts with other branches of morphology Morphology Study Notes 17 Morphology Study Notes 18 Morphology X Language Acquisition Morphology & CLA: Findings § How do children learn morphemes? One by one or as a rule? § Storage: Children make use of morphological rules and can apply them to new § How do adults learn morphological patterns? words (5-7yr-olds add suffixes to nonsense words) § At what ages are morphological patterns learned? § Is there a set order in which morphemes are learned? § Timing: first-graders do better than pre-schoolers 1st words around 12-20 months Morphology & Language Morphological modulation in 1st year § Data elicitation tasks Increase in complexity (prepositions, affixes, clitics) - Wug test - Conversion around age 2 - Nonsense materials - Affixes around age 3 § Longitudinal studies - Compounding: 1.5-7 years Mastery takes several years - Comprehension before production § Order (same for adults): No use of complex morphology at all (cat not cat-s) Sporadic use of morphology - Suffixes before prefixes (even if they give the same info) General & over-generalized use (foot-s) Identification of relevant limits § Language typology (productivity of patterns in language) does affect timing Highly inflected languages: inflection acquired between 2-3 months of speaking - Case marking is acquired earlier in Hungarian than German - 3SG plural (he play-s) is acquired earlier in Portuguese before English) Compounding is acquired earlier in German than Spanish Age plays a big role Child language acquisition is largely incidental (unaware) Gender doesn’t affect acquisition rate/order Added meaning (affixes) is acquired before non-concatenative patterns Main factors: - Consistency, simplicity (formal and semantic complexity), regularity, transparency, and productivity Morphology Study Notes 19 Morphology Study Notes 20 Morphology & Psycholinguistics ★ Psycholinguistics = the study of mental representations of systems / processes involved in language production, comprehension and storage. ★ Morphology: What information about the internal structure of complex words is stored and how? Æ What is going wrong and how to approach therapy Æ The study of language disorders and errors gives insights into the organization of the language system Morphology, attrition and language disorders Morphology and language disorders Specific Language Impairment (SLI): interference in children with no hearing loss - Struggle to find/learn words - Frequent grammatical mistakes - Simple sentences - Difficulty understanding figurative language - Disorganized storytelling Williams syndrome Down’s Syndrome Autism Aphasic language disorders - Agrammatism: omission of morphology/function words (Broca’s aphasia) - Paragrammatism: substitution of morphemes (meaning) (Wernicke’s aphasia) - Clinical indicators for other diseases Degenerative diseases - Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s disease, semantic dementia. Inflammatory diseases - Herpes simplex encephalitis