4th Part Bio Exam PDF

CARBOHYDRATES - made of C H , and O ('cando' : contains cardon ; 'hydrate' : contains H and 0 these atoms are...

CARBOHYDRATES - made of C H , and O ('cando' : contains cardon ; 'hydrate' : contains H and 0 these atoms are typically present in the following ratios : (CH2On -Carbohydrates are composed of repeating monomers called monosaccharidesa simple sugar monosaccharides form ving structure it is a energetically favorable configuration - as more MONOSACCHARIDES -most of them have either 5 cardons (pentose sugars) or 6 carsons (hexose sugars - pentose sugar 1 ex. ribose - a core component of RNA nucleotides (and ATP) DNA nucleotides have modified form of ridose that is (deaxy ridose · a missing an oxygen ex. of herose sugar is glucose a simple sugar used in cells - a source as an energy - group glucose exists of 2 isomers (Lor B) based orientation of 1-OH · as one on the the ENERGY SOURCE primary role of monosaccharides chemical energy (glucose is the most common sugar utilised covalent sands ATP (via -energy stored within the be released oxidation form the can via to process of cellular respiration ( -monosaccharides are small , polar molecules which makes them hydrophilic - easy to transport between cells -glucose converts to starch or glycogen for storage  POLYSACCHARIDES glycosidic bond bond produced in condensation - - a reactions -disaccharide - 2 monosaccharides linked together - the polymer formed depends on the monomers involved and their bonding arrangements -polysaccharide can also be complexed with other molecules lex glycoprotein. ENERGY STORAGE polymers of L-glucose used in short-term storage - are energy glycogen-produced by animals, starch by plants - - monomers of L-glucose will form straight Chelical) chains 1'-4' linkages but may branch via additional 1'-6' via linkages -starch - amylose is helical Ch linkages) amylopectin is branched (additional 1' -6') -glycogen-branched Imore so than amylopectin STRUCTURE - polymers of B-glucose will form the polysaccharide cellulose the B-glucose form inverted alternating arrangements every second - monomers - monomer is > linear chains - can be grouped into bundles and cross-linked with hydrogen bonds - increases the mechanical stability of the polymer bundles of cellulose-microfibrilis -  RECOGNITION glycoproteins proteins that have been attached to carbohydrate via glycosidic linkage - a - a this process is called glycosylation and occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi body glycoproteins variety of roles , including acting surface for recognition - can serve a as a marker the ABO antigens the surface of red blood cells examples of glycoproteins · on are  LIPIDS -non-polar molecules (they have no net change -some way have polar regions be considered and can hence amphipathic - used for : long term energy storage (triglycerides · thermal insulation (fats and oils) · membrane structure (phospholipids ( · signalling and communication (steroids ( PROPERTIES -non-polar molecules repelled like water are by polar molecules -low solubility - tend to aggregate in agreous solvents - do not dissolve form effective water-repelling surfaces in plants and animals Iwaxes oils , TYPES OF LIPIDS - Simple lipids - composed of esters of fatty acids and alcohol these triglycerides (fats and oils) and waxes include - Compound lipids simple lipids linked to additional groups - phospholipids ( phosphate) and glycolipids (+ carbohydrate > - + Derived lipids produced from the hydrolysis of other lipids - this includes steroids and prostaglandins I have rings I ESTER LINKAGES - simple and compound lipids - fatty acid chains covalently linked to an alcohol group - this occurs via a condensation reaction and result in a ester bond Triglycerides-3 fatty acid chains covalently linked glycerol molecule - to a ~ in phospholipids , one of the fatty acid chains is replaced by a polar phosphate group  FATTY ACIDS fatty acids long hydrocarbon chains found in simple and compound - are lipids -storage of lipids as fats or oils is a consequence of an organism's physiology and environment -Saturated fatty acids : ~ no double bonds between cardon atoms they have the hydrogens (saturated ( max. number of - linear in structure and typically solid at room temperature have straight chains allowing them to be tightly packed together I , > - this increases the number of intermolecular forces between the chains higher melting point - solid fats at room temperature - Unsaturated Fatty acids > - double bonds between cardon atoms structure kinked and temperature is typically liquid at > - room - , Mono' = one double Sond; Poly' multiple , = double bonds > - have kinked chains that cause them to be more loosely packed > - lower meeting point - liquid oils at room temperatures FATS VS. OILS : Storage -storage of lipids as fats or oils is a consequence of an organism's physiology and environmen > - organisms need fatty acids to be liquid in the tissues to allow them to be utilised as cells organisms will pack fatty acids tightly possible to storage > - the as as maximize Endotherms fats-higher produce saturated body temperatures keep these - more core can tightly-packed fats liquid within the tissues. fish oils) le g - cold blooded animals tend to produce more unsaturated fats. -plants cannot thermoregulate and so will predominantly produce unsaturated liquid oils plants in warmer climates will produce more saturated fats than plants in cooler climates  HEALTH CONSEQUENCES as saturated fatty acids tend to stay solid at higher temperatures they are more , likely to form fatty deposits in blood vessels - causing atherosclerosis and high blood pressure (hypertension unsaturated fatty acids tend to stay liquid and so will be less likely to clog the blood vessels - TRANS FATS - unsaturated fatty acids can exist in 2 isomeric forms : Cis-hydrogen atoms · are on same side of the double dand Trans-hydrogen atoms on different sides of the double dand - trans fatty acids form straight chains (not kinked) and function more like saturated fats (higher meeting point and usually solid) -trans fatty acids will greatly increase blood cholesterol levels -most organisms only produce cis-unsaturated fatty acids trans fats - are typically only produced via industrial cooking practices - TRIGLYCERIDES animals store their triglycerides (fats) in adipose tissue , which serves 2 key functions - : it functions long-term energy storage site and provides a layer of thermal insulation s as a Marine mammals typically possess especially thick layer of adipose tissue called bludder - an - this bludder not only keeps the animal warm but also helps to keep it Guoyant in water Different from carbohydrates : Solubility triglycerides insoluble in water (much harder to transport) - are - - Osmosis - being hydrophobic they , do not exent osmotic pressure on cells Digestion triglycerides are less easily digested I need oxygen to occur ( - ATP Yield triglycerides produceroughly twice as much energy per gram - - because of these properties triglycerides are used long-term energy storage molecule , as a this is why continual over-eating will result in the accumulation of adipose tissue (fat > -  STEROIDS are derived lipids composed of four-fused candon rings -Considered lipids - non-polar and hydrophobic - Signalling molecules (normones) - able to pass through the phospholipid dilayer and find to intracellular receptors - steroid hormones are synthesized from the precursor cholesterol ex of steroid hormones include those produced by the gonads -. : · restradiol (the main form of destrogen) is produced by the avaries testosterone (the primary androgen) is produced by the testes > -  PROTEINS -extremely diverse class of organic compounds - can vary greatly in their properties and fulfil a wide range of functions prevalent class of Giomacromolecule - more than 50 % of the dry weight of any cell - produced according to genetic instructions encoded by DNA - they essentially function as the 'worker' molecules of a cell protein expression levels will change according to the requirements of a cell-genetic instructions be activated to need can according MADE OF ARE AMINO ACIDS > PROTEINS - -proteins are comprised of long chains of amino acids there are 20 different amino acids that are common to all living organisms (and viruses - -all contain an amine group carboxyl , group and variable group attached to an L cardon ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - amino acids can be essential , non-essential or conditional - essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must be present in the diet -non-essential amino acids can be produced by the body (by metabolising other amino acids - conditional amino acids can be produced , but at lower rates - they are essential at certain times only (e g.. during pregnancy / - shortage of essential amino acids in the diet prevents production of necessary proteins protein deficiency malnutrition · POLYPEPTIDES amino acids covalently linked together with peptide Bonds (via condensation reaction ( - are 2 amino acids will form dipeptide - a less than 20 amino acids oligopeptide - - - more than 20 will form a polypeptide chain-synthesised by ridosomes via the process of translation  PROTEIN FOLDING variety - peptide chains can be of any length and the amino acids can be arranged in any order (some proteins are composed of multiple polypeptide chains - the way a polypeptide folds into a complex 3D structure will be determined by the amino acid sequence PROTEIN FUNCTIONS structure collagen is key structural protein in skin - - a - Hormones - insulin and glucagon control blood sugar Immunity antibodies target disease-causing agents - - Transport-haemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood - sensitivity rhodopsin is visual pigment in retinas - a - Movement-myosin is involved in muscle constraction - - Enzymes-rudisco catalyses carbon fixation in plants DENATURATION - a structural change in protein that results in a a loss of its biological activity - protein function is dependent shape any change on - in folding may after activity denaturation is usually permanent unless chaperone proteins assist with refogldin - , can temperature that disrupts bonds - : hydrogen heat helpthe a chain fold-the protein begins to unfold to s pH a measure of hydrogen ion concentration :. changing pl will alter the charge and solubility · of amino acids disrupts the overall shape of the protein MAKING OF PROTEINS amino acid sequence that determines protein structure is encoded nucleotide sequence by - a (gene) found within DNA -protein is expressed as the results of C linked processes : TRANSCRIPTION - mRNA transcript made from DNA template TRANSLATION polypeptide produced from mRNA transcript -Typically, one gene will code for one peptide , however : -some don't get translated genes -alternative splicing can produce variants of polypeptides PROTEOME the cell total proteins expressed within organism at given time - or a can be larger than the totality of the genetic coding for proteins instructions - - ALTERNATIVE SPLICING may create multiple protein variants from single genetic instruction -POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS promote further changes to amino acid may an sequence cleaved - proteins may be glycosylated phosphorylated, , into smaller parts -human encode approximately 20000 proteins human genome 2 can s proteome includes approximately 100 000 proteins > - monomers = nucleotides C C O  a polynucleotid & ↳ covalent Lond nu ~ hydrogen Lond o c u 6 me e