Decolonisation and New Global Geopolitics (1945-1991) PDF

UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 1- DECOLONISATION (I). CAUSES AND STAGES 1.1 Causes of Decolonisation o Second World War: The colonies as battle zones and actively participated in the conflict, leading to an awareness of their own importance. The colonial p...

UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 1- DECOLONISATION (I). CAUSES AND STAGES 1.1 Causes of Decolonisation o Second World War: The colonies as battle zones and actively participated in the conflict, leading to an awareness of their own importance. The colonial powers’ defeats resulted in a decline in their prestige. o Nationalist Movements: Post-war, nationalist ideals influenced by Liberalism and Marxism spread through the colonies, defending the rights of people to self-govern and decide their own future. o Charismatic Leaders: Many colonised nations’ elites studied in European universities and military academies. They formed political parties and led the independence process. Examples include Mahatma Gandhi (Indian National Congress), Ho Chi Minh (National Liberation Front or Viet Cong), Sukarno (The Indonesian National Party), and Lumumba (Congolese National Movement). o International Support: Support for decolonisation came from intellectuals, Christian churches, humanitarian movements, the United Nations, and policies of the United States and Soviet Union.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 1.2 Stages of Decolonisation o First Stage (1945 - 1955): Began in Asia and affected British, Dutch, and French colonies in Asia and the Middle East o Second Stage (1956 - 1975): Affected North African countries and Sub-Saharan Africa. o Third Stage (1975 onwards): Affected remaining colonies on the Arabian Peninsula, West Indies islands, and Oceania archipelagos. Decolonisation occurred through:  Peaceful agreements (e.g., British colonies via the Commonwealth),  Colonial wars (e.g., Algeria, Angola, Mozambique),  Mix of war and diplomacy (e.g., India).  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991)  2- DECOLONISATION (II). THE PROCESS AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 2.1 Decolonisation of Asia and the Middle East o Asia: Independence was achieved through: o peaceful process (Philippines, 1946), o mixed process (Hindustan Peninsula, 1947; Bangladesh, 1971), and o war (Indonesia; French Indo-China: Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia). o Middle East: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and various Arabian Peninsula countries became independent. The UN divided Palestine in 1947 to create the State of Israel, leading to ongoing Arab- Israeli Wars. 2.2 The Push to Decolonise o The Bandung Conference (1955) condemned colonialism and racism, affirmed nations’ right to self-determination, called for peaceful coexistence, and committed to impartiality. This set the foundations for the Non-Aligned Movement. o The UN condemned colonialism in 1960.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 2.3 Decolonisation of Africa o Independence first affected:  northern colonies (Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria), then  Sub-Saharan Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Somalia, Kenya), and finally  Portuguese colonies (Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique). 2.4 Consequences: The Third World o Political: Arbitrary border demarcation led to wars and conflicts, resulting in violent and corrupt military dictatorships. o Economic: Many countries remained economically dependent on their former metropoles or the US/Soviet Union (neo-colonialism), leading to unequal exchanges and foreign debt. o Social: Population growth and poor economic conditions resulted in low living standards (hunger/malnutrition, medical/health deficiencies, illiteracy). The term “Third World” was coined in 1952 to describe these decolonised countries due to their resemblance to the pre-revolutionary French Third Estate and their non-alignment with First World (capitalist bloc) and Second World (communist bloc) countries.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 3- NEW WORLD GEOPOLITICS. THE WORLD DIVIDED INTO BLOCS  3.1 The formation of the blocs o Post-1947, the United States and the Soviet Union became adversaries due to their different political and economic systems, forming two opposing blocs:  The capitalist bloc, led by the United States, included Western Europe and Japan. They shared a parliamentary democracy and a capitalist economy. This bloc was strengthened by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Marshall Plan.  The communist bloc, led by the Soviet Union, included Central and Eastern Europe. These countries became ‘people’s democracies’ that prioritized state interests and a planned economy over individual rights. This bloc was reinforced by the Warsaw Pact and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). o Each bloc expanded to other countries in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania over time.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991)  3.2 Relationship between the blocs. Cold War o The relationship between the two blocs from 1945 to 1991 was characterized by the Cold War, a period of ongoing military, ideological, and diplomatic tension.  A time of great tension (1947–1956): The split between the two blocs began with the proclamation of the Truman Doctrine, which opposed the creation of communist regimes and offered help to those threatened by communism. In response, the Soviet Union proposed the Zhdanov Doctrine, which denounced US imperialism and offered assistance to countries resisting it.  Peaceful coexistence (1956–1976): This period was marked by increased dialogue between the two blocs, facilitated by increased nuclear power in the Soviet Union and new leadership in both countries.  The resurgence of the Cold War (1977–1985): Tensions increased due to an arms race focused on nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union sought military supremacy through various means, while the United States increased military spending and intervened in conflicts in the Third World.  The end of the Cold War (1985–1991): Tensions eased under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who initiated dialogue with the United States, declared unilateral disarmament, withdrew from foreign conflicts, and granted greater autonomy to people’s republics. Meanwhile, financial difficulties in the United States hindered continued participation in the costly nuclear arms race. The Cold War ended in 1991 with several disarmament agreements, marking a new international order with the United States as the sole world superpower.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 4- THE CAPITALIST BLOC (I). 1945-1973. POLITICS AND THE ECONOMY  4.1 The United States. Hegemonic power o USA adopted a two-party political system with the Democratic and Republican parties alternating power.  Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower conducted a fierce anti- communist campaign, while  John F. Kennedy carried out a more moderate political programme. o Relevant domestic issues  A) struggle for equal rights led by Martin Luther King, Jr.  B) protests against American intervention in the Vietnam War. o The economy grew rapidly after WWII, with the emergence of powerful multinational companies and widespread mass consumption.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991)  4.2 Western Europe. Reconstruction and integration o Most European countries: multi-party democracy, with exceptions in Greece, Portugal, and Spain. o The Marshall Plan, organized by the United States: grants and low-interest loans for European reconstruction. o The idea of European integration was revived after the war, leading to the creation of the Benelux, OEEC, ECSC, EEC, and Euratom.  4.3 Japan. The economic ‘miracle’ o Japan was occupied by the United States between 1945 and 1951, during which a new constitution was approved establishing a parliamentary monarchy. o The economy grew rapidly under US support, becoming the second world economic power in the 1960s due to investment in high-tech products and a disciplined labour force.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 5- THE CAPITALIST BLOC (II). 1945-1973  5.1 Consumer society o Known as the Golden Age of Capitalism. o Economic advances and growing incorporation of women into the labour market. o Consolidation of consumer and welfare society, increased middle class, improved living standards. o Extension of consumer goods (automobile, household appliances, television in the United States). o Widespread welfare state in Western Europe. o Japan adopted Western dress, fashions and habits.  5.2 Trends and social movements o Emergence of new trends: long hair for men, jeans and miniskirts. o Pop music and rock and roll became a mass phenomenon. o Emergence of new social movements like the Civil Rights Movement, hippie movement, feminist movement. o ‘May 1968’ student protests in Paris.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 6- THE CAPITALIST BLOC (III). 1973-1991  6.1 The spread of liberal democracy o Disappearance of military dictatorships in Southern Europe. o Emergence of liberal democracies in Portugal, Greece, Spain. o Communist parties embraced Eurocommunism.  6.2 The 1973 economic recession o Started as an energy crisis due to rise in oil prices by OPEC. o Industrial crisis due to technological backwardness.  Severe consequences:  high inflation rate,  reduction in demand,  decline of production and corporate profits,  closure of companies, increase in unemployment. o Social unrest in Latin American countries leading to military dictatorships.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 7- THE COMMUNIST BLOC (I). 1945-1982  7.1 The Soviet Union and the ‘people’s democracies’ o The Soviet Union became a military power post-World War II. o ‘De-Stalinisation’ process initiated by Nikita Khrushchev. o ‘People’s democracies’ implemented in Central and Eastern Europe. o Economy adopted nationalisations, radical agrarian reforms and a planned economy.  7.2 China under Mao Zedong o Civil war in China between the Chinese National Party and the communists. Creation of two states:  People’s Republic of China.  Maoist regime controlled political power through the Communist Party.  Economic reconstruction of the country with the Great Leap Forward.  Republic of China in Taiwan.  7.3 The Cuban Revolution o Revolution led by Fidel Castro triumphed in Cuba in 1959: procommunist system.  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 8- THE COMMUNIST BLOC (II). 1982-1991. THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR AND THE COMMUNIST BLOC 8.1 The break-up of the Soviet Union  The reforms of Gorbachev: After Brezhnev’s death in 1982: deep political and economic crisis. Mikhail Gorbachev, the head of the Soviet Communist Party from 1985, set out to solve it by undertaking various reforms: o Foreign policy: Resumed disarmament talks with the United States and withdrew from conflicts in Africa and Afghanistan. o Domestic policy: Implemented perestroika (political and economic reforms) and glasnost (freedom of expression and opinion to the media).  Opposition to Gorbachev’s reforms: Radical reformers like Boris Yeltsin considered them insufficient, while hardliners saw them as a threat to the communist system.  From the USSR to the CIS: In 1991, Gorbachev granted greater autonomy to Central and Eastern European countries, leading to an attempted military coup by hardliners. The Communist Party was outlawed, independence was granted to the Baltic Republics, and the Soviet Union was replaced by a Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).  UNIT 4 DECOLONISATION. NEW GLOBAL GEOPOLITICS (1945-1991) 8.2 The break-up of the communist bloc  Reform process in European people’s republics: Took advantage of the internal problems of the Soviet Union to discard the communist system and establish democracy.  Autumn of Nations: A wave of change that affected all Central and Eastern European countries.  Fall of the Berlin Wall: Began on November 9, 1989. Shortly after, German reunification was concluded on October 3, 1990.