Decolonization after World War II

Causes of Decolonization

• Colonies served as battle zones and participants in World War II, heightening their awareness of their importance.
• Colonial powers experienced a decline in prestige because of defeats.
• Post-war nationalist ideals influenced by Liberalism and Marxism spread, advocating for self-governance.
• Elites from colonized nations studied in European universities/military academies, forming political parties and spearheading independence movements. Examples: Mahatma Gandhi, Ho Chi Minh, Sukarno, and Lumumba.
• Support for decolonization: intellectuals, Christian churches, humanitarian movements, the United Nations, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

Stages of Decolonization

• First Stage (1945-1955): Took place in Asia, impacting British, Dutch, and French colonies, plus the Middle East.
• Second Stage (1956-1975): Affected North African countries and Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Third Stage (1975 onwards): Encompassed remaining colonies on the Arabian Peninsula, West Indies islands, and Oceania archipelagos.
• Decolonization occurred through peaceful agreements, colonial wars, or a mix of war and diplomacy.

Decolonization of Asia and the Middle East

• In Asia, independence was achieved through a peaceful process, a mixed process, or war. ◦ Philippines achieved independence in 1946 through a peaceful process. ◦ Hindustan Peninsula (1947) and Bangladesh (1971) achieved independence through a mixed process. ◦ Indonesia and French Indo-China (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) achieved independence through war.
• Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and various Arabian Peninsula countries became independent.
• The UN divided Palestine in 1947 leading to Arab-Israeli Wars.

Push to Decolonize

• The Bandung Conference (1955) condemned colonialism and racism, affirmed nations' right to self-determination, called for peaceful coexistence, and committed to impartiality, setting the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement.
• The UN condemned colonialism in 1960.

Decolonization of Africa

• Independence first affected northern colonies, then Sub-Saharan Africa, and finally Portuguese colonies. ◦ Northern colonies: Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria ◦ Sub-Saharan Africa: Ghana, Nigeria, Somalia, Kenya ◦ Portuguese colonies: Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique

Consequences: The Third World

• Arbitrary border demarcation led to wars and conflicts, resulting in violent and corrupt military dictatorships.
• Many countries remained economically dependent on their former metropoles or the US/Soviet Union (neo-colonialism), leading to unequal exchanges and foreign debt.
• Population growth and poor economic conditions resulted in low living standards (hunger/malnutrition, medical/health deficiencies, illiteracy).
• Term "Third World" was coined in 1952 referring to decolonized countries due to their resemblance to the pre-revolutionary French Third Estate and their non-alignment with First/Second World countries.

Formation of the Blocs

• Post-1947, the United States and Soviet Union: adversaries, forming two opposing blocs due to differing political and economic systems.
• The capitalist bloc, led by the United States, included Western Europe and Japan. It was strengthened by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Marshall Plan.
• The communist bloc, led by the Soviet Union, included Central and Eastern Europe; focus on state interests/economy over individual rights. This bloc was reinforced by the Warsaw Pact and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).
• Each bloc expanded to other countries in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

Relationship Between the Blocs: Cold War

• From 1945 to 1991 was characterized by military, ideological, and diplomatic tension (the Cold War).
• Heightened tension (1947-1956) began with the Truman Doctrine (opposed communism) and the Soviet Union's Zhdanov Doctrine (denounced US imperialism).
• Peaceful coexistence (1956-1976): marked by dialogue, increased nuclear power in the Soviet Union, and new leadership.
• Resurgence of the Cold War (1977-1985): tensions increased due to an nuclear arms race, Soviet military supremacy, and US military spending/intervention.
• The end of the Cold War (1985-1991) occurred under Mikhail Gorbachev, easing tensions, declaring unilateral disarmament, and granting autonomy. Financial difficulties in the US hindered nuclear arms. The Cold War ended in 1991 with disarmament agreements and the US as sole superpower.

The United States: Hegemonic Power

• USA adopted a two-party system (Democratic and Republican parties).
• Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower conducted an anti-communist.
• John F. Kennedy carried out a moderate political programme.
• Relevant domestic issues included the equal rights struggle led by Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Vietnam War.
• The economy grew rapidly after WWII, with multinational companies and mass consumption.

Western Europe: Reconstruction and Integration

• Most European countries adopted multi-party democracy, except for Greece, Portugal, and Spain.
• The Marshall Plan, organized by the United States was giving grants and low-interest loans for European reconstruction.
• The idea of European integration was revived after the war, leading to the creation of: Benelux, OEEC, ECSC, EEC, and Euratom.

Japan: The Economic ‘Miracle'

• Between 1945 and 1951 Japan was occupied by the United States, and a new constitution was approved, establishing a parliamentary monarchy.
• The economy grew rapidly with US support, becoming the second world economic power in the 1960s.

Consumer Society

• Known as the Golden Age of Capitalism, featured economic advances and growing incorporation of women into the labor market.
• Consolidation of consumer/welfare society, growing middle class, improved living standards, and expansion of consumer goods.
• Widespread welfare state in Western Europe.
• Japan adopted Western dress, fashions, and habits.

Trends and Social Movements

• Emergence of new trends: long hair for men, jeans, mini skirts.
• Pop music and rock and roll became a mass phenomenon.
• Emergence of new social movements like the Civil Rights Movement, hippie movement, and feminist movement.
• 1968 student protests in Paris.

The Spread of Liberal Democracy

• Disappearance of military dictatorships in Southern Europe.
• Emergence of liberal democracies in Portugal, Greece, and Spain.
• Communist parties embraced Eurocommunism.

The 1973 Economic Recession

• Started as an energy crisis due to rise in oil prices by OPEC and industrial crisis due to technological backwardness; severe consequences: high inflation, reduced demand, decline of production and profits, companies close, unemployment rises.
• Social unrest in Latin American countries led to military dictatorships.

The Soviet Union and the 'People's Democracies'

• The Soviet Union became a military power post-World War II.
• "De-Stalinisation" process was initiated by Nikita Khrushchev.
• "People's democracies" were implemented in Central and Eastern Europe.
• Economy adopted nationalizations, radical agrarian reforms, and a planned economy.

China under Mao Zedong

• Civil war in China between the Chinese National Party and the communists led to the creation of two states:
  • People's Republic of China, where the Maoist regime controlled political power through the Communist Party with reconstruction through the Great Leap Forward.
  • Republic of China in Taiwan.

The Cuban Revolution

• Led by Fidel Castro, triumphed in Cuba in 1959, establishing a pro-communist system.

The Reforms of Gorbachev

• After Brezhnev's death in 1982, the Soviet Union faced a deep political/economic crisis; Mikhail Gorbachev (head of the Soviet Communist Party from 1985) started reforms. ◦ Foreign policy: Resumed disarmament with the US, withdrew from Africa and Afghanistan. ◦ Domestic policy: Implemented perestroika and glasnost.

Opposition to Gorbachev's Reforms

• Radical reformers like Boris Yeltsin considered them insufficient, while hardliners saw them as a threat to the communist system.

From the USSR to the CIS

• In 1991, Gorbachev granted greater autonomy to Central/Eastern Europe, leading to attempt of military coup by hardliners.
• The Communist Party was outlawed, independence was granted to the Baltic Republics, and it was replaced by a Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Break-up of the Communist Bloc

• Reform process in European people's republics allowed discarding of communism and establishment of democracy.
• Autumn of Nations: wave of change affected all Central/Eastern European countries.
• Fall of the Berlin Wall began on November 9, 1989. German reunification concluded on October 3, 1990.

Explore the intricate processes of decolonization following World War II. Examine the roles of global powers, the impact of ideologies, and diverse leadership strategies. Analyze the challenges faced by newly independent nations.