401 Final Week 6 Chapter 2: From Words to Major Phrase Types PDF

Week 6 Chapter 2: From Words to Major Phrase Types By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.1 Introduction - Syntax is the study of rules which generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. - The basic units of syntax are words By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.1 Introdu...

Week 6 Chapter 2: From Words to Major Phrase Types By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.1 Introduction - Syntax is the study of rules which generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. - The basic units of syntax are words By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.1 Introduction To form grammatical sentences, we start from words, or ‘lexical’ categories. These lexical categories then form a larger constituent ‘phrase’; and phrases go together to form a ‘clause’. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.1 Introduction What is a clause? By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.1 Introduction - Clause: refers to a complete sentence-like unit, but which may be part of another clause, as a subordinate or adverbial clause. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words parts of speech= lexical categories = grammatical categories = word class By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words parts of speech= lexical categories = grammatical categories - Words can be classified into different lexical categories according to three criteria: Meaning Morphological form or properties Syntactic function or distributional possibilities By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words - Meaning Though such semantic bases can be used for many words, these notional definitions leave a great number of words unaccounted for. e.g. sincerity, happiness, pain (nouns, but do not refer to individual or entity) assassination, construction (nouns but they refer to an action) bother, appear, exist (verbs, but do not involve any action). By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words - Morphological form or properties Examples N: trains, actors, rooms N: man’s, sister’s V: devoured, laughed V: devours, laughs A: fuller, fullest, more careful, most careful Adv: fully, carefully, clearly From Kim & Peters (2008) By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words The morphological (form-based) criterion, though reliable in many cases, is not a necessary and sufficient condition for determining the type of lexical categories. e.g. Love, pain (nouns that do not have a plural form) Absent, circular (adjectives that do not have comparative -er or superlative –est) By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words - Syntactic function or distributional possibilities The most reliable criterion in judging the lexical category of a word is based on its syntactic function or distributional possibilities. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words - Syntactic function or distributional possibilities Environment Possibility Lexical category They have no ____ TV/car/information/friend Noun They can _______ sing/run/smile/stay/cry Verb They read the ____ book big/new/interesting/scientific Adjective He treats John very _____ nicely/kindly/badly Adverb He walked right _____ the wall into/on Preposition ____ student hits the ball the/a/this/that Determiner ______ jobs are in jeopardy my/these/some/the/his Articles/possessives/quantifiers/ demonstratives I think _______ learning is easy that Complementizer By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are the basic lexical categories, but English has other lexical categories such as: - Determiners (Det): the, a, this, that.. - Conjunctions (Conj): and, but, so, for, or, yet.. - Complementizers (C): that, for, if , and whether - Auxiliary verbs (Aux): will, can, shall and must. - Particles (Part): off, up By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words Determiners (Det): the, a, this, that.. Determiners ‘determine’ the referential properties of student here, and for this reason, they are called determiners. They cannot occupy the same position at the same time. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words Conjunctions (Conj): and, but, so, for, or, yet.. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words Complementizers: that, for, if , whether They introduce a complement clause o that and if introduce a tensed clause/finite (present or past tense), o for requires an infinitival clause marked with to. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words Auxiliary verbs (Aux): will, can, shall and must. They appears in front of the main verb, which is typically in its citation form, which we call the ‘base’ form. We treat the infinitival marker to as an auxiliary verb. X To is a preposition By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.2.1 Determining the Lexical Categories for Words - Particles (Part): off, up Words like off and up here behave differently from prepositions, in that they can occur after the object. Preposition By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.3 Grammar with Lexical Categories - The main goal of syntax is building a grammar that can generate an infinite set of well-formed, grammatical English sentences - A grammar rule for sentence (S): infinite The man kicked the ball. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.3 Grammar with Lexical Categories - Notice that even this simple grammar rule can easily extend to generate an infinite number of English sentences by allowing iteration of the A* By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi A grammar with only lexical categories is not adequate for describing syntax. In addition, we need a notion of ‘constituent’, and need to consider how phrases may be formed, grouping certain words together. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.4 Phrasal Categories Tests which demonstrate the appropriate grouping of words or specific constituencies Constituent Substitution by a Cleft Questions and Coordination Pronoun Stand-Alone Test By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Cleft: the cleft construction places an emphasized or focused element in the X position in the pattern ‘It is/was X that... ’ By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Constituent Questions and Stand-Alone Test: phrasal categories can be found in the answers to ‘constituent questions’, which involve a wh -word such as who, where, when, how. By Dr. Kholod Sendi John put old books in the box. What did you put in your box? Where did you put the book? What did you do? By Dr. Kholod Sendi  John put old books in the box. What did you put in your box? Old books Where did you put the book? In the box What did you do? Put old books in the box Tests show that old books and in the box are constituents and that put old books in the box is also a (larger) constituent. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Substitution by a Pronoun : By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Coordination: - Words and phrases can be coordinated by conjunctions , and each conjunct is typically the same kind of constituent as the other conjuncts By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS) S = sentence Adj = adjective NP = noun phrase Adv = adverb VP = verb phrase Art = article PP = prepositional phrase Det = Determiners (the, a, this, that…) N = noun Pro = pronoun V = verb PN = proper noun Aux = auxiliary verb = consists of ( ) = an optional constituent By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Noun Phrase --------------------- liked ice cream. Mary ،I, you the students the tall students the students from Seoul the new students who came from Seoul NP → (Det) A* N (PP/S) NP can consist of an optional Det, any number of optional A, an obligatory N, and then an optional PP or a modifying S. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Verb Phrase The student--------------- snored, ran, sang loved music walked the dog through the park warned us that storms were coming By Dr. Kholod Sendi  2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Verb Phrase The student--------------- snored, ran, sang loved music walked the dog through the park warned us that storms were coming VP → V (NP) (PP/S) a VP can consist of an obligatory V followed by an optional NP and then any number of PPs or a S. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Verb Phrase The student--------------- can run will feel happy must study English syntax VP → V[AUX +] VP The student--------------- read the book loudly in class VP → VP (Adv/PP) the adverb loudly and the PP in the class are modifying the preceding VP By Dr. Kholod Sendi Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Sentence The teacher met his students in the class. S → NP VP By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Adjective Phrase John feels-----------------. happy, uncomfortable, terrified, sad proud of his sister proud to be his student proud that he passed the exam. AP → A (PP/VP/S) By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Adverb Phrase He treated her -----------. badly well Very well AdvP→ (AdvP) Adv By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.5 Phrase Structure Rules (PS): Preposition Phrase John came from Seoul. They put the book in the box. They stayed in the hotel. The fly fell into the soup. PP → P NP By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2.6 Grammar with Phrases S → NP VP NP → (Det) A* N (PP/S) VP → V (NP) (PP/S) AP → A (PP/VP/S) AdvP→ (AdvP) Adv PP → P NP By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi A grammar with lexical categories generates an infinite number of grammatical English sentences. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Another important property that PS rules bring us is the ability to make reference to hierarchical structures within given sentences, where parts are assembled into sub-structures of the whole. One merit of such hierarchical structural properties is that they enable us to represent the structural ambiguities of sentences such as: The little boy hits the child with a toy. By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi with the toy modifies just the noun child with the toy modifies the whole VP phrase By Dr. Kholod Sendi with the toy modifies just the noun child with the toy modifies the whole VP phrase By Dr. Kholod Sendi - We have noted that English allows two alike categories to be coordinated. This can be written as a PS rule, for phrasal conjunction, where XP is any phrase in the grammar. XP→ XP+ Conj XP By Dr. Kholod Sendi - We have noted that English allows two alike categories to be coordinated. This can be written as a PS rule, for phrasal conjunction, where XP is any phrase in the grammar. XP→ XP+ Conj XP X By Dr. Kholod Sendi - The PS rules further allow us to represent the difference between phrasal verb (e.g, call off ) constructions and prepositional verb constructions (e.g. rely on). By Dr. Kholod Sendi - The PS rules further allow us to represent the difference between phrasal verb (e.g, call off ) constructions and prepositional verb constructions (e.g. rely on). preposition Particle of the phrasal verb By Dr. Kholod Sendi Thank you  Week 8 Chapter 3: Grammatical Functions, Semantic Roles By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Syntactic categories N, A, V, P, NP, VP, AP … i.e., noun, adjective, verp, preposition, noun phrase,.... The monkey scratched a boy on Monday. [S[NPThe monkey] [VPscratched [Np a boy] [PP on Monday]]] Grammatical functions Subject (SUBJ), Object (OBJ) Predicate (PRED), Modifier (MOD) They represent the grammatical function each constituent plays in the given sentence The monkey scratched a boy on Monday. [S[SUBJThe monkey] [PREDscratched [OBJa boy] [MOD on Monday]]] By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Semantic roles Agent, patient, location, instrument, and the like. A semantic role denotes the underlying relationship that a participant has with the relation of the clause, expressed by the main verb. John tagged the monkey in the forest. [[agt John] [pred ] tagged [pat the monkey] [loc in the forest]]. The monkey was tagged in the forest by John. [[pat The monkey] [pred ] was tagged [loc in the forest] [agt by John]]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  3.1 Introduction We analyzed English sentences Syntactic Grammatical Semantic categories functions Roles SUBJ, OBJ, PRED, MOD Agent, patient, location, instrument.. N, A, V, P, NP, VP, AP … Chapter 2 By Dr. Kholod Sendi 3.2 Grammatical Functions By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Subjects [The cat] [devoured [the rat]]. [The rat] [devoured [the cat]]. Subject: is the one who performs the action denoted by the verb. This is not always true! Look at these examples: My brother wears a green overcoat. This car stinks. It rains. The committee disliked her proposal. These verbs are not agentive activities; they indicate stative descriptions or situations By Dr. Kholod Sendi Subjects How do we know the subject? More reliable tests for subjecthood come from syntactic tests: agreement tag questions, subject-auxiliary inversion. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Agreement: The main verb of a sentence agrees with the subject in English The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is very interesting. The effectiveness of teaching and learning depends on several factors. The tornadoes that tear through this county every spring are more than just a nuisance. Simply being closer to the main verb does not entail subjecthood. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Tag questions: A tag question, a short question tagged onto the end of an utterance The lady singing with a boy is genius, isn’t she? With their teacher, the kids have arrived safely, haven’t they? - The pronoun in the tag question agrees with the subject in person, number, and gender. - The pronoun refers back to the subject, but not necessarily to the closest NP, nor to the most topical one. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Subject-auxiliary inversion: In forming questions and other sentence-types, English has subject-auxiliary inversion, which applies only to the subject. This teacher is genius. Is this teacher genius? The kids have arrived safely. Have the kids arrived safely? It could be more detrimental. Could it be more detrimental? The auxiliary verb is inverted with respect to the subject By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Objects Direct and Indirect Objects A direct object (DO) is a NP, undergoing the process denoted by the verb This is not always true! Look at this example: The dog fears [thunder]. - The objects (OBJ) are not really affected by the action. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Objects How do we know the object? We can use the the syntactic construction of passivization The child broke the teapot by accident. The teapot was broken by the child by accident We can notice here is that the objects ‘promoted’ to subject in the passive sentences. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Direct and Indirect Objects 1. An indirect object (IO) is one which precedes a direct object (DO) 2. IOs are NPs and have the semantic roles of goal, recipient, or benefactive 3. The objects that undergo passivization are direct objects, distinct from indirect objects The ball was thrown by me By Dr. Kholod Sendi Predicative Complements - Predicative Complements: phrases which follow a verb but which do not behave as DOs or IOs. They function as the predicate of the subject or the object. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  The difference between objects and predicative complements - predicative complements do not passivize. - The difference between objects and predicative complements can also be seen in the following contras (meaning) direct object predicate of the object Kim By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Phrases other than NPs can serve as predicative complements The situation became terrible Adj phrase as the predicate of the subject The message was that you should come on time Modifying S as the predicate of the subject I made Kim angry Adj phrase as the predicate of the object I consider him immoral Adj phrase as the predicate of the object By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Form and Function Together We now can analyze each sentence in terms of grammatical functions as well as the structural constituents /syntactic categories. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 3.4 Semantic Roles By Dr. Kholod Sendi Semantic Roles By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi - An important advantage of having such semantic roles available to us is that it allows us to capture the relationship between two related sentences, as we have already seen. As another example, consider the following pair: a. [agt The cat] chased [pat the mouse]. b. [pat The mouse] was chased by [agt the cat]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Week 9 Chapter 4: Head, Complements & Modifiers By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Internal vs. External Syntax - Internal syntax deals with how a given phrase itself is constructed in a well-formed manner (The verb put selects an NP and a PP as its complements) - External syntax is concerned with how a phrase can be used in a larger construction (external environment) By Dr. Kholod Sendi Notion of Head, Complements, and Modifi ers - Head: A lexical or phrasal element that is essential/ obligatory in forming a phrase. e.g. put his gold under the bathtub The verb put is the head of a VP. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - English Declarative Sentence Rule: Each declarative sentence must contain a finite VP as its head. Each finite VP is headed by a finite verb. E.g. - *They [eager to leave the meeting]. - The senators [know that the president is telling a lie]. - *The senators [certain that the president is telling a lie]. - *They [(to) be eager to leave the meeting]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Complement: A phrasal element that a head must combine with or a head select. - These include direct object, indirect object, predicative complement, and oblique complement. e.g. put his gold under the bathtub two complements: NP and PP By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Modifier: A phrasal element not selected by the verb functions as a modifier to the head phrase. The inner VP forms a minimal VP which includes all the ‘minimally’ required complements. (The phrase including the head and all of its complements.) The outer VP is the maximal VP which includes optional modifiers. (The phrase that includes complements as well as modifiers.) By Dr. Kholod Sendi Head, Complement and Modifier - Head: A lexical or phrasal element that is essential in forming a phrase. - Complement: A phrasal element that a head must combine with or a head select. These include direct object, indirect object, predicative complement, and oblique complement. - Modifier: A phrasal element not selected by the verb functions as a modifier to the head phrase. - Minimal Phrase: The phrase including this head and all of its complements. - Maximal Phrase: The phrase that includes complements Kim & Sells (2008) as well as modifiers. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Differences between Complements and Modifiers 1- Obligatoriness: complements are strictly-required phrases whereas modifiers are not (optional). John placed Kim behind the garage. The verb placed requires an NP and a PP John kept him behind the garage. kept an NP and a PP or an AP John stayed behind the counter stayed a PP. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Differences between Complements and Modifiers 2- Iterability: In general two or more instances of the same modifier type can occur with the same head, but this is impossible for complements in Seoul is a modifier and we can on humans is a complement and thus the same type of PP on natural causes cannot repeatedly have the same type of PP. co-occur. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  the PP is a complement the PP is a modifier 3- Do-so Test: John [deposited some money in the checking account] and Mary did the same thing (too). John [deposited some money in the checking account on Friday] and Mary did the same thing (too). John [deposited some money in the checking account ] on Friday and Mary did the same thing on Monday. *John [deposited some money] in the checking account and Mary did the same thing in the savings account the PP is a complement and should be included in the do the same thing phrase Do-so Replacement Condition: The phrase do so or do the same thing can replace a verb phrase which includes at least any complements of the verb. By Dr. Kholod Sendi 4- Constancy of semantic contribution: An adjunct can co-occur with a relatively broad range of heads whereas a complement is typically limited in its distribution. modifier Kim jogs on the hill. Kim jogs on the hill/under the hill/over the hill. Kim depends on Sandy. complement Kim depends on Sandy/*at Sandy/*for Sandy. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - 5- Structural Difference: We could distinguish complements and modifiers by tree structures, too: complements combine with a lexical head (not a phrase) to form a minimal phrase whereas modifiers combine with a phrase to form a maximal phrase By Dr. Kholod Sendi  modifier complement By Dr. Kholod Sendi - 6- Ordering Difference: As a complement needs to combine with - a lexical head first, modifiers follow complements John met [a student] [in the park]. complement modifier 1 2 By Dr. Kholod Sendi  PS Rules, X-Rules, and Features - Phrase structure rules (PS rules): By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Another limit that we can find from the simple PS rules concerns an issue of redundancy. - These examples show that each verb has its own requirement for its complement(s). IV: intransitive, TV: transitive, DTV: ditransitive IV TV--- NP DTV, ---NP NP By Dr. Kholod Sendi PS Rules - A similar issue of redundancy arises in accounting for subject- verb agreement 36 A- The bird devours the worm. B- The birds devour the worm By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Intermediate Phrases (N’) - photo of Max and sketch by his students are phrasal elements but not full NPs Because they can’t appear as a subject. *Sketch by his students appeared in the magazine - so what are they? They are intermediate phrases, represented as N-bar or N’. The phrase N’ is bigger than a noun, but smaller than a full NP, in the sense that it still requires a determiner from the class the, every, no, some , and the like. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Specifiers (SPR)= Determiner Phrase (DP) - Specifiers: complete the specification of the event denoted by the predicate. These phrases are treated as the specifiers of N’ and of VP, respectively. Determiners possessive phrase (NP + ’s) SPR (specifiers) = DP (determiner phrase) includes the possessive phrase (NP + ’s) as well as determiners. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  The VP is an intermediate phrase (N’) that requires a subject in order to be a full and complete S. SPR/ By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Given these similarities between NP and S structures, we can generalize over them as: The destruction of the city NP The enemy destroyed the city S SPR specifiers = DP (determiner phrase) includes the possessive phrase (NP + ’s), determiners, and subject of a verb. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Three X’-Rules 1. XP → Specifier, X’ (Head-Specifier Rule) NP→ the enemy’s destruction 2. XP → X, YP∗ (Head-Complement Rule)VP→ destroy the city By Dr. Kholod Sendi Three X’-Rules 3. XP → Modifier, X’ (Head-Modifier Rule) By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Three X’-Rules Example: the king [of Rock and Roll] [with a hat] Specifier/DP complement modifier By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Three X’-Rules We cannot apply the Head-Modifier Rule first and then the Head-Complement Rule. - *the king [with a hat] [of Rock and Roll] X By Dr. Kholod Sendi Three X’-Rules: 1. XP → Specifier, X’ (Head-Specifier Rule) 2. XP → X, YP∗ (Head-Complement Rule) 3. XP → Modifier, X’ (Head-Modifier Rule) POS = part of speech: noun, verb, adjective By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Lexicon and Feature Structures Lexical information Every lexical entry at least includes phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic information. e.g. the minimal lexical information for puts: By Dr. Kholod Sendi Each feature structure is an attribute-value matrix (AVM): By Dr. Kholod Sendi Typed feature structure By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Structure sharing Kim has two sons, and their TEL attribute has a value which is the same as the value of his TEL attribute By Dr. Kholod Sendi Subsumption - The subsumption relation concerns the relationship between a feature structure with general information and one with more specific information. In such a case, the general one subsumes the specific one. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Unification Feature unification means that two compatible feature structures are unified, conveying more coherent and rich information. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Incompatible unification By Dr. Kholod Sendi Feature Structures for Linguistic Entities By Dr. Kholod Sendi Feature Structures for Linguistic Entities PHON = phonological value SYN = syntactic ARG-ST = Argument structure SEM = semantic information POS= part of speech VFORM fin= Verb has a finite verbal inflectional form value agt= agent th= theme loc= location PRED= predicate By Dr. Kholod Sendi Argument Realization - some verbs like smile, devour and give will have the following ARG-ST representations, respectively Smile select for just one argument She smiled Devour take two arguments The tiger devoured the deer Give take three arguments She gives Mary a book By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Argument Realization Constraint (ARC): The first element on the ARG-ST list is realized as SPR (specifier/Subject), the rest as COMPS complements in syntax. - These arguments combined in the notion of valence (VAL) features. - E.g. the verb put: ”they put the book on the table” they The book On the table By Dr. Kholod Sendi e.g. - The election results surprised everybody. - That he won the election surprised everybody The election results everybody That he won the election everybody By Dr. Kholod Sendi Verb Types and Argument Structure - Intransitive: This is a type of verb that does not have any COMPS: – a. John disappeared. – b. *John disappeared Bill. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Linking verbs: Verbs such as look, seem, remain, and feel require complements such as AP or NP that can function as a predicate (PRD +) – The teacher became [tired of the students]. (AP) – John became a success (NP) By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Transitive verbs: select a referential, non-predicative NP as their complement, functioning as direct object: – John saw Fred. – Raccoons destroyed the garden By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Ditransitive: have three arguments: one subject and two complement NPs functioning as indirect and direct object, respectively: – The parents bought the children non-fiction novels. – John taught new students English Syntax. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  – The parents bought non-fiction novels for the children. – John taught English Syntax to new students. In this realization, the second argument has the theme role while the third one has the goal role. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Complex Transitive: selects two complements, one functioning as a direct object and the other as a predicative phrase (NP, AP, or VP), describing the object: – John regards Bill as a good friend. (PP) – The sexual revolution makes some people uncomfortable. (AP) – Ad agencies call young people Generation X-ers. (NP) – Historians believe FDR to be our most effective president. (infinitive VP). By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Other types – John carried her on his back The PP here cannot be said to be predicate of the object her ; it denotes the location to which John carries her. By Dr. Kholod Sendi ARGUMENTS AND PREDICATES Examples: A word which functions as the verb does here, we call a predicate Words which function as the nouns do are called arguments. By Dr. Kholod Sendi The man wearing a white shirt is hitting the big ball in the room A. a modifier to the subject noun B. a modifier to the verb phrase C. the predicate D. the complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) E. the predicate and complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) F. an adjunct (not required by the verb) By Dr. Kholod Sendi The man wearing a white shirt is hitting the big ball in the room A. a modifier to the subject noun B. a modifier to the verb phrase C. the predicate D. the complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) E. the predicate and complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) By Dr. Kholod Sendi The man wearing a white shirt is hitting the big ball A. a modifier to the subject noun B. the predicate C. the complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) D. the predicate and complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) E. an adjunct (not required by the verb) By Dr. Kholod Sendi The man wearing a white shirt is hitting the big ball A. a modifier to the subject noun B. the predicate C. the complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) D. the predicate and complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) E. an adjunct (not required by the verb) By Dr. Kholod Sendi The show is very bad A. a modifier to the subject noun B. the predicate C. the complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) D. the predicate and complement (required by the verb to complete its meaning) E. an adjunct (not required by the verb) By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Week 10 Chapter 5: Subjects and Complements By Dr. Kholod Sendi Revision By Dr. Kholod Sendi Review: Principles of Grammar Kim & Sells (2008) - ARG-ST (argument structure): are realized as the syntactic elements SPR and COMPS - SPR (specifier): subject of verb and determiner of noun - COMPS (complements): words or phrases needed to complete meaning - X’ Rules: controls their combination with relevant head – XP: specifier, head – XP: head, complement (s) – XP modifier, head By Dr. Kholod Sendi Chapter 5: Subjects and Complements By Dr. Kholod Sendi - The POS feature is thus a head feature which passes up to a ‘mother’ phrase from its head ‘daughter’, as shown in X HFP (The Head Feature Principle): Every phrase has its own lexical head with the identical parts of speech (POS) value. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Grammar Rules Kim & Sells (2008) - Well-formedness conditions on possible phrases in English indicating: – What each head combines with – What happens as a result of combination Grammar rules, interacting with the general principles such as the HFP, license grammatical sentences in English. By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi Subjects and Complements Kim & Sells (2008) -The finite verb deposits selects a subject (a specifier) and two complements. -The HFP ensures that the head feature POS values of the verb, its mother VP and S are all identical. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Subjects and Complements Kim & Sells (2008) When the lexical head combines with its two complements, the COMPS value becomes empty, forming a VP in accordance with the Head-Complement Rule. This VP will still need to combine with its SPR in order to form a complete sentence. The Valence Principle (VALP): The mother’s SPR and COMPS value is identical with its head daughters minus the discharged By Dr. Kholod Sendi value(s). Complements of Verbs: Types of English Verb Forms present past finite finite plain base present participle Non-finite Non-finite past participle infinitive By Dr. Kholod Sendi Complements of Verbs: Types of English Verb Forms They are excellent They want to be excellent students By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  English Declarative Sentence Rule: For an English declarative sentence to be well-formed, its verb form value (VFORM) must be finite. – Only finite verb forms can be used as the head of the highest VP in a declarative sentence The finiteness of a sentence or a VP comes from the head verb, showing that the finiteness of the VFORM value is a head feature By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Every verb will be specified for a value of the head feature VFORM. E.g. The student knows the answer. The verb knows will have the following lexical information: By Dr. Kholod Sendi - This [VFORM pres ] value will be projected to the S in accordance with the HFP, as represented in the following: By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Even though each main verb here requires a VP as its complement, the required VFORM value could be different, as illustrated by the following lexical entries: a. The monkeys kept forgetting their lines. (ing ) b. We caught them eating the bananas. (ing ) c. John made Mary cook Korean food. (bse ) By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Kim & Sells (2008) The monkeys kept forgetting their lines. (ing ) John made Mary cook Korean food. (bse ) Even though each main verb here requires a VP as its complement, the required VFORM value could be different. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  p.80 The Head-Complement Rule allows the combination of the head verb kept with the VP whose VFORM value is ing. Complements of Adjectives - There are at least two types of adjectives in English in terms of complement selection: 1. Those selecting no complements at all He seems intelligent 2. Those taking complements. – Monkeys are eager to leave → VP[inf ] – The chickens seem fond of the farmer. → PP [of] – The foxes seem compatible with the chickens. → PP [with] – These are similar to the bottles. → PP [to] – The teacher is proud of his students. → PP [of] By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Just like verbs, adjectives also place restrictions on the VFORM or PFORM value of their complement Monkeys are eager to leave. The chickens seem fond of the farmer. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Head-Complement Rule also licenses the combination of the adjective eager with its VP[inf ] By Dr. Kholod Sendi Complements of Common Nouns - Nouns do not usually select complements, though they often may have specifiers. – E.g: common nouns like idea, book, pen etc. require only a specifier, but no complement - Yet there are nouns which do require a specific type of complement, such as proximity, faith, king, desire , and bottom : – their proximity to their neighbors/*for their neighbors – Bill’s faith in/*for Fred’s sister – the king of/*in English – the desire to become famous/*for success – the bottom of/*in the barrel By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Although these complements can be optional in the right context, they are grammatically classified as complements of the nouns, and should be represented in the following simplified lexical entries: their proximity to their neighbors Bill’s faith in Fred’s sister By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Feature Specifications for the Subject - In general, most verbs select a regular NP as subject: – John/Some books/The spy disappeared. – The teacher/The monkey/He fooled the students. - However, certain English verbs select only it or there as subject – It rains. (*there rains/ *John rains) – There lies a man in the park (*The spy lies a man in the park). - it and there are often called expletives: - they do not have or contribute any meaning. - The use of these expletives is restricted to particular contexts or verbs. By Dr. Kholod Sendi We classify nouns as having three different NFORM values: 1. Normal 2. it 3. there The teacher fooled the students. It rains. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Only a limited set of verbs require their subject to be [NFORM there]: There exists only one truly amphibian mammal. 1 Only one truly amphibian mammal exists ( one argument) 2 There exists only one truly amphibian mammal. (two arguments) By Dr. Kholod Sendi Clausal Complement or Subject By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Verbs Selecting a Clausal Complement - There are verbs selecting not just a phrase but a whole clause as a complement, either finite or nonfinite. - For example, consider the complements of think or believe : I think (that) the exam is easy They believe (that) the exam is easy. -The C (complementizer) that here is optional, This kind of verb selects for a finite complement clause =[VFORM fin ] clause By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Verbs Selecting a Clausal Complement I think (that) the exam is easy I think the exam is easy I think (that) the exam is easy CP= complement/complementizer phrase By Dr. Kholod Sendi  They believe (that) the exam is easy. If the COMPS value only specifies a VFORM value, the complement can be either S or CP By Dr. Kholod Sendi - We can also find somewhat similar verbs like demand and require : John demanded [that she stop phoning him]. The rules require [that the executives be polite]. - Unlike think or believe , these verbs which introduce a subjunctive clause typically only take a CP[VFORM bse ] as their complement: By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi - There are also verbs such as: warned, told, convinced select a sequence of an NP followed by a CP as complements Joe warned the class that the exam would be difficult. We told Tom that he should consult an accountant. Mary convinced me that the argument was sound. The COMPS value of such verbs will be:→ By Dr. Kholod Sendi  There is an infinitive type of CP, headed by the complementizer for. Some verbs such as intend and prefer select this nonfinite complement phrase: CP[VFORM inf ] as the complement: Tom intends for Sam to review that book. John would prefer for the children to finish the oatmeal. These verbs can also take a VP[VFORM inf ] complement: John intends to review the book. John would prefer to finish the oatmeal. [VFORM inf ] can be realized either as CP[VFORM inf ] or VP[VFORM inf ]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - verbs like try, tend, hope , and others select only a VP[inf ]: Tom tried to ask a question. *Tom tried for Bill to ask a question. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Verbs Selecting a Clausal Subject - In addition to CP as a complement, we also find some cases where a CP is the subject of a verb A- [John] bothers me. [That John snores] bothers me. B- [John] loves Bill Nominal is a noun, noun phrase, or any *[That John snores] loves Bill. word or word group that functions as a noun. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Adjectives Selecting a Clausal Complement - Like verbs, certain adjectives can also select CPs as their complements, such as ashamed, delighted, content, thankful…. - For example, confident and insistent select a finite CP, whereas eager selects an infinitival CP: Tom is confident [that they respect him]. Tom is insistent [that the witnesses be truthful]. Tom seems eager [to catch a cold]. Tom seems eager [for his brother to catch a cold]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Nouns Selecting a Clausal Complement - Nouns can also select a CP complement, for example, eagerness : (John’s) eagerness [for Harry to win the election] (John’s) eagerness [to win the election] - eagerness will have the following lexical information: [VFORM inf ] can be realized either as CP[VFORM inf ] or VP[VFORM inf ]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Prepositions Selecting a Clausal Complement - In general, prepositions in English cannot select a CP complement. *Alan is thinking about [that his students are eager to learn English]. *Fred is counting on [for Tom to make an announcement]. X - However, wh -CPs, sometimes known as indirect questions, may serve as prepositional complements. The outcome depends on [how many candidates participate in the election]. Fred is thinking about [whether he should stay in Seoul]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Week 11 Chapter 6 (6.1, 6.2, & 6.3) Chapter 8 in Kim & Sells (2008) By Dr. Kholod Sendi Chapter 6 -(6.1, 6.2, & 6.3) in Kim & Sells (2008) Noun Phrases and Agreement By Dr. Kholod Sendi Types of Nouns in English Kim & Sells (2008) Common Noun countable desk, book, difficulty, remark, etc. uncountable butter, gold, music, furniture, etc. Proper Noun Seoul, Kyung Hee, Stanford, Palo Alto, uncountable January, etc. Pronoun personal he, she, they, his, him, etc. relative that, which, what, who whom, etc. interrogative who, where, how, why, when, etc. Indefinite Anybody, everybody, somebody, nobody, anywhere, etc. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Combinatory Possibilities with Determiners: By Dr. Kholod Sendi Syntactic Structures Syntactic Structures Common Proper Pronouns Nouns Nouns By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Common Nouns My bother’s friend learned dancing. - determiners like my and uncountable nouns like rice select neither specifier nor complement - The possessive marker ’s requires a NP as specifier. - The countable noun like brother/friend require DP (determiner phrase) as specifier By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Pronouns - The core class of pronouns in English includes at least three main subgroups: a. Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, they, we b. Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself c. Reciprocal pronoun: each other By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Pronouns - Personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things and take different forms to indicate person, number, gender, and case. - They participate in agreement relations with their antecedent , the phrase which they are understood to be referring to: a. President Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address in 1863. b. After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can. c. I got worried when the neighbors let their dogs out. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Reflexive pronouns are special forms which typically are used to indicate a reflexive activity or action, which can include mental activities. After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building. Edward usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Proper Nouns - Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not take a plural form and cannot occur with a determiner: John, Bill, Seoul, January,... *a John, *a Bill, *a Seoul, *a January,... - However, proper nouns can be converted into countable nouns when they refer to a particular individual or type of individual: a. No John Smiths attended the meeting. b. This John Smith lives in Seoul. c. There are three Davids in my class. d. It’s nothing like the America I remember. e. My brother is an Einstein at math. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Agreement Types and Morpho- syntactic Features By Dr. Kholod Sendi Common nouns in English participate in three types of agreement 1. Noun-Determiner Agreement 2. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 3. Subject-Verb Agreement By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Noun-Determiner Agreement - All countable nouns are used either as singular or plural. When they combine with a determiner, there must be an agreement relationship between the two. this book/that book *this books/*that books/these books/those books - The head noun’s number value should be identical to that of its specifier, leading us to revise the Head-Specifier Rule as following: English head-specifier phrases require their head and specifier to share agreement features, implying that determiners and nouns have NUM (number) information as their syntactic AGR (agreement) value. By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement In the book, he talks about his ups and downs at McLaren. Throughout it all he seeks to answer the questions about himself. If John wants to succeed in corporate life, he/*she has to know the rules of the game. The critique of Plato’s Republic was written from a contemporary point of view. It was an in-depth analysis of Plato’s opinions about possible governmental forms. The pronoun he or it here needs to agree with its antecedent not only with respect to the number value but also with respect to person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter) values too. By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Subject-Verb Agreement The boy swims/*swim. The boys swim/*swims. You are/*is the only person that I can rely on. Students studying English read/*reads Conrad’sHeart of Darkness while at university. The subject and the verb need to have an identical number value; and the person value is also involved in agreement relations, in particular when the subject is a personal pronoun (e.g. you). By Dr. Kholod Sendi The boy swims By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Chapter 8 Auxiliary Constructions Kim & Sells (2008) By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Auxiliary verbs - Auxiliary verbs can be classified as follows: – will, shall, may….....etc (Modal auxiliary verbs): have only finite (plain or past) forms – have/be: have both finite & nonfinite forms. – do: has a finite form only with vacuous (empty) semantic meaning – to: has a nonfinite form only with apparently vacuous semantic meaning By Dr. Kholod Sendi Distinctions between auxiliary and main verbs: NICE properties – Negation: only auxiliaries are followed by Tom will not leave. *Tom kicked not a ball. not – Inversion: Only auxiliary verbs undergo Will Tom leave the party now? *Left Tom the party already? subject-auxiliary inversion – Contraction: only auxiliaries have contracted John couldn’t leave the party. *John leftn’t the party early. forms If anybody is spoiling the children, John is. – Ellipsis: the complement of an auxiliary can *If anybody keeps spoiling the children, John keeps be elided [... ]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - tag questions: auxiliary verb can appear in You should leave, shouldn’t you? the tag part of a tag question, but not a main *You didn’t leave, left you? verb. She would never believe that story. *She believed never his story. - adverbs/ floated quantifiers: Adverbs such The boys will all be there. as never and floated quantifiers such as *Our team played all well. all can follow an auxiliary verb, but not a main verb. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Ordering Restrictions: Auxiliaries are subject to restrictions of the sequences in which they can occur and the forms in which they can combine with other auxiliary verbs Example: The children will have been entertained By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Transformational Analyses - The seminal work on the issues above is that of Chomsky (1957). His analysis, introducing the rule in (11), directly stipulates the ordering relations among auxiliary verbs: By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Transformational Analyses - Chomsky’s (1957) analysis directly stipulates the ordering relations among auxiliary verbs: Mary solved the problem. Affix Hopping Rule Mary would solve the problem. Mary was solving the problem. This rule ensures that the affixal tense morpheme (Past) in Tense is hopped to M (Modal) (will ), or over onto the main verb (solve ) if the Modal does not appear. ‘ do -support’ Rule *Mary not avoided Bill. Mary did not avoid Bill. In addition to the Affi x Hopping Rule, typical transformational analyses introduce the English particular rule called ‘ do -support’ for dealing with the NICE properties in clauses that otherwise have no auxiliary verb By Dr. Kholod Sendi A Lexicalist Analysis By Dr. Kholod Sendi Modals (such as will, shall and must) - Modal verbs can only occur in finite (plain or past) forms. They cannot occur neither as infinitives nor as participles I hope *to would/*to can/to study in France. *John stopped can/canning to sign in tune. - Modals do not show 3rd person inflection in the present tense, nor a transparent past tense form *John musts/musted leave the party early. - modal verbs select a base VP as their complement John can [kick/*kicked/*kicking/*to kick the ball]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Be and Have - they have nonfinite forms (would have, would be, to have/to be ) - they have a 3rd person inflection form (has, is ) - they select not a base VP as their complement, but an inflected nonfinite form. (I have seen) - they also have uses as main verbs He is a fool. He has a car. - The verb be has three main uses: John is in the school. as a copula selecting an predicate XP John is running to the car. as an aspectual auxiliary with a progressive VP following John was found in the office. as an auxiliary as part of the passive construction - Auxiliary have is similar in its properties to auxiliary be , and it selects a past participle VP complement. By Dr. Kholod Sendi be John is in the school. I have seen the By Dr. Kholod Sendi boy Periphrastic do John does not like this town. In no other circumstances does that distinction matter. They didn’t leave any food. Jane likes these apples even more than Mary does. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Periphrastic do Like the modals appears only in finite *They expected us to do/should leave him. contexts. I found myself needing/*doing need/*should needing sleep. Unlike other auxiliaries, do appears neither *He does be leaving. before nor after any other auxiliary. *They will do come. The verb do has no obvious intrinsic meaning to speak of. Except for carrying the grammatical information about tense and agreement (in present tense), it has no semantic contribution If do is used in a positive statement, it needs to be emphatic (stressed). But in negative statements and questions, no such requirement exists. *John does leave. John DOES leave. By Dr. Kholod Sendi John does not like this town. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Infinitival Clause Marker to - to only appears in nonfinite; it is marker of the infinitive in English. - to obligatorily take bare verbal complements (modals cannot head the complement) *John believed Kim to leaving here. *John expect to must leave. John expects to leave. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Explaining the NICE Properties By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Auxiliaries with Negation 1. Constituent Negation: The properties of not as a nonfinite VP modifier can be supported from its similarities with adverbs such as never in nonfinite clauses Kim regrets [never/not [having seen the movie]]. We asked him [never/not [to try to call us again]]. Duty made them [never/not [miss the weekly meetings]]. not to modify a nonfinite VP By Dr. Kholod Sendi 2. Sentential Negation: The president could not approve the bill. - Sentential not appears linearly in the same position following a finite auxiliary verb. - When not is used as a marker of sentential negation, it is selected by the preceding finite auxiliary verb via a lexical rule: Negative Auxiliary Verb Lexical Rule: could Could not Read 162-164 By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi Auxiliaries with Inversion - Questions in English are formed by structures which invert the subject and the auxiliary: Are you studying English syntax? - however, sometimes there is a semantic difference I shall go downtown. Shall I go downtown? - English also has various interpretations for the subject-auxiliary inversion construction: By Dr. Kholod Sendi  you will Can be inverted [INV +]. Cannot be inverted [INV -]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Contracted Auxiliaries - Auxiliary verbs actually show two kinds of contraction: either with a preceding subject or with a negation (but not both): They’ll be leaving. They wouldn’t leave soon. They’d leave soon. They shouldn’t leave soon. - It is common to analyze n’t as a kind of inflectional affix - N’t Inflection Lexical Rule: would wouldn’t By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - Tag questions: a. They can do it, can’t they? b. b. They can’t do it, can they? c. *They can’t do it, can’t they? XARG (external argument) This rule means that a tag part can be added when it has the opposite NEG value whose subject index is identical with that of the matrix subject. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Auxiliaries with Ellipsis - Verb Phrase Ellipsis (VPE) is possible only after an auxiliary verb: a. Kim can dance, and Sandy can__ , too. b. Kim has danced, and Sandy has__ , too. c. Kim was dancing, and Sandy was__ , too. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Week 12 Chapter 9: Passive Constructions Chapter 10- WH questions in Kim & Sells (2008) By Dr. Kholod Sendi Chapter 9: Passive Constructions By Dr. Kholod Sendi 1- One of Korea’s most famous poets wrote these lines. 2- These lines were written by one of Korea’s most famous poets. By Dr. Kholod Sendi One of Korea’s most famous poets wrote these These lines were written by one of Korea’s most famous lines. poets. Subject Subject - These two sentences are truth-conditionally similar: they both describe the same event. - The passive voice changes the subject but not the meaning By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Discourse-motivated – Draws attention to the person or thing acted upon – Places emphasis on a process or principle being described – We use the passive voice when the actor in the situation is not important or specific – we use passive voice in formal, scientific, or technical writing or reports By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Relationships between Active and Passive Grammatical Functions and Subcategorization - In active voice, a transitive verb form such as taken or chosen must have an object: John has taken Bill to the library. *John has taken _to the library. Active John has chosen Bill for the position. *John has chosen_ for the position. - Yet, with the passive construction of such verbs, the object NP must not be present: Bill has been taken to the library. Passive Bill has been chosen for the position. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - The active form handed in (1) requires an NP and a PP[to ] as its complements, and the passive handed in (2) still requires the PP complement: 1- Pat handed a book to Chris. Active *Pat handed to Chris. *Pat handed a book. Passive 2- A book was handed to Chris (by Pat). By Dr. Kholod Sendi Other Selectional Properties the subject of the passive form is the argument which corresponds to the object of the active. Passive - Expletive form it They believe it to be easy to annoy Ben. It is believed to be easy to annoy Ben. They believe there to be a dragon in the wood. There is believed to be a dragon in the wood. - If the active complement is itself a clause, so must the subject of the passive verb be a clause: No one believes [that he is a fool]. [That he is a fool] is believed by no one - If the post verbal constituent can be understood as part of an idiom, so can the subject in the passive: They believe the cat to be out of the bag. The cat is believed to be out of the bag By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Morpho-syntactic changes: - The passive construction requires the auxiliary verb be in conjunction with the passive form of the verb (en form) I have been eating an apple An apple has been being eaten (by me) By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Semantics: In terms of meaning, as noted above, there is no change in the semantic role assigned to the argument which is the subject in the passive. - The agent argument of active verb is expressed as an optional oblique argument of the PP headed by the preposition by in the passive, or not at all: Pat handed Chris a note. Chris was handed a note (by Pat). Passive By Dr. Kholod Sendi Summery The observations above mean that any grammar needs to capture the following basic properties of passive: - Passive turns the active object into the passive subject; - Passive leaves other aspects of the COMPS value of the active verb unchanged; - Passive optionally allows the active subject to be the object in a PP headed by the preposition by ; - Passive makes the appropriate morphological change in the form of the main verb, and requires the auxiliary be ; - Passive leaves the semantics unchanged. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Approaches to Passive - From Structural Description to Structural Change Chomsky’s (1957) Passive Formation Rule formulated in terms of structural descriptions (SD) and structural change (SC): This rule means that if there is anything that fits the SD, it will be changed into the given SC: that is, if we have any string in the order of “X – NP – Y – V – NP – Z” the order can be changed into : “X – NP – Y – be – V+en – Z – by NP”. (in which X, Y, and Z are variables) By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi - A Lexicalist Approach - First, there are many exceptions to passive. For example, transitive verbs like resemble or fit do not have any passive in some senses. The model resembles Kim in nearly every detail. *Kim is resembled by the model in nearly every detail. The coat does not fit you. *You are not fitted by the coat. - There are also verbs like rumor, say and repute which are used only in the passive I was born in 1970. *My mother bore me in 1970. It is rumored that he is on his way out. *Everyone rumored that he was on his way out. John is said to be rich. *They said him to be rich. He is reputed to be a good scholar. *They reputed him to be a good scholar. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Passive Lexical Rule: By Dr. Kholod Sendi John sent her to Seoul. She was sent to Seoul (by John). By Dr. Kholod Sendi The Passive Lexical Rule can be also applied to verbs which select for a CP complement. They widely believed that John was ill. That John was ill was widely believed (by them). By Dr. Kholod Sendi We apply the same rule when the complement is an indirect question They haven’t decided [which attorney [Which attorney will give the closing argument] will give the closing argument]. hasn’t been decided (by them). By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Prepositional Passives - In addition to the passivization of an active transitive verb, English also allows the so-called ‘prepositional verb’ to undergo passivization: You can rely on Ben. Ben can be relied on. They talked about the scandal for days. The scandal was talked about for days More examples of prepositional verbs: approved of, dealt with, asked for, attended to → See p. 186 They flew to/near/by Boston. *Boston was flown to. X A crowd of people gathered near/at the capital. *The capital was gathered near by a crowd of people. The children played under/near the hot sun. *The hot sun was played under by the children. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Prepositional Passives - In addition to the passivization of an active transitive verb, English also allows the so-called ‘prepositional verb’ to undergo passivization: The propositions are You can rely on Ben. Ben can be relied on. all selected by the main verbs (no other They talked about the scandal for days. The scandal was talked about for days prepositions can replace them). More examples of prepositional verbs: approved of, dealt with, asked for, attended to → See p. 186 They flew to/near/by Boston. *Boston was flown to. X Each preposition is NOT selected by the main A crowd of people gathered near/at the capital. *The capital was gathered near by a crowd of people. verb, since it can be replaced by another one The children played under/near the hot sun. as noted in their active *The hot sun was played under by the children. sentences By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Unlike in the active verb, the passive does NOT allow any adverb to intervene between the verb and the preposition They look generally on John as selfish X *He is looked generally on as selfish The passive verb and the preposition is one unit By Dr. Kholod Sendi  V to be combined with the following P (which is defined to be ‘LIGHT’ - Prepositional Passive Lexical Rule: By Dr. Kholod Sendi The lawyer looked into the document. The document was looked into (by the lawyer). By Dr. Kholod Sendi Chapter 10- WH questions By Dr. Kholod Sendi Clausal Types and Interrogatives - Declarative: John is clever. - Interrogative: Is John clever? Who is clever? - Exclamative: How clever you are! - Imperative: Be very clever By Dr. Kholod Sendi Clausal Types and Interrogatives There are basically two types of interrogative: - Yes-No questions: Can the child read the book? - Wh -questions: What can the child read? By Dr. Kholod Sendi Clausal Types and Interrogatives There are basically two types of interrogative: - Yes-No questions: Can the child read the book? - Wh -questions: What can the child read? Yes-no questions are different from their declarative counterparts by having subject and auxiliary verb in an inverted order. wh-questions are introduced by one of the interrogative words such as who, what, which or where. The wh-phrases formed from these wh- words have a variety of functions in the clause. For example, they can be the subject, object, oblique complement, or even an adjunct: o [Who] called the police? o [How] did he eat the food? By Dr. Kholod Sendi - The wh -phrase need not be a NP – it can be a PP, AP, or AdvP: By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Each wh -question consists of two parts: - a wh –phrase (filler) and an inverted sentence with a missing phrase (gap) (indicated by the underline). By Dr. Kholod Sendi  The wh phrase (filler) and the missing phrase (gap) must have an identical syntactic category as a way of ensuring their linkage NP PP AP AdvP By Dr. Kholod Sendi  X By Dr. Kholod Sendi  - The distance between the filler and the gap is not bound within one sentence, and it can be ‘long-distance’ or ‘unbounded’ This long-distance relationship gives wh –questions and other similar constructions the family name of ‘long-distance dependency’. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Subject Wh-Questions Who put the book in the box? When the subject who is questioned, the Who DID put the book in the box? Who can put the book in the box? presence of an auxiliary verb is optional. By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Argument Realization Constraint (ARC, final) The first element on the ARG-ST list is realized as SPR, the rest as COMPS or GAP in syntax. Who__ put the book in the box? By Dr. Kholod Sendi By Dr. Kholod Sendi Indirect Questions By Dr. Kholod Sendi Indirect Questions - Among the verbs selecting a sentential or clausal complement (S or CP), there are also verbs selecting an indirect question John asks [whose book his son likes__ ]. John has forgotten [which player his son shouted at __]. He told me [how many employees Karen introduced to the visitors__]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi Indirect Questions - Verbs selecting an indirect question as their complement can be in general classified by their meaning: a. interrogative verbs: ask, wonder, inquire,... b. verbs of knowledge: know, learn, forget,... c. verbs of increased knowledge: teach, tell, inform,... d. decision verbs/verbs of concern: decide, care,... - the clausal complement of these verbs cannot be a canonical CP, and must be an indirect question: X By Dr. Kholod Sendi - Factive verbs like deny or claim cannot combine with an indirect question *Tom denied [which book he had been reading]. Tom denied [(that) he had been reading the article]. By Dr. Kholod Sendi - There are some verbs, such as forget, tell and know , that select either a - [QUE +] or a [QUE − ] complement. John told us that we should review the book. [QUE − ] John told us which book we should review. [QUE +] By Dr. Kholod Sendi There are thus at least three different types of verb which take clausal complements, in terms of their semantic functions (e.g., whether the complement is interpreted as declarative or question), reflected in the following lexical entries: The complement must be an The complement cannot The complement can be either a indirect question [QUE +] or a [QUE − ] complement be an indirect question By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Non-Wh Indirect Questions - English also has indirect questions headed by the complementizer whether or if : I don’t know [whether/if I should agree]. She gets upset [whether/if I exclude her from anything]. I wonder [whether/if you’d be kind enough to give us information]. - This means that the complementizers whether and if will have at least the following lexical information: By Dr. Kholod Sendi  Whether vs. if - Whether and if can both bear the feature QUE (projecting an indirect question), but different with respect to the fact that only whether behaves like a true wh-element: 1. Whether can serve as a prepositional object. However, an if -clause cannot function as prepositional object: I am not certain about [when he will come]. I am not certain about [whether he will go or not]. *I am not certain about [if he will come].X 2. There is also a difference between if and whether in infinitival constructions I don’t know [how to do it]. I don’t know [whether to agree with him or not]. *I don’t know [if to agree with him]. X By Dr. Kholod Sendi