Medicinal Herbs: Pharmacology and Botany Review PDF

Okay, here is the converted and structured markdown format of the provided text: # Medicinal Herbs ## Dr/ Helmi Alhakemi master on pharmacognosy Cairo university 2014 * In **botany**, the herb is a plant whose stem does not become woody and permanent but dies at least down to the ground, after...

Okay, here is the converted and structured markdown format of the provided text: # Medicinal Herbs ## Dr/ Helmi Alhakemi master on pharmacognosy Cairo university 2014 * In **botany**, the herb is a plant whose stem does not become woody and permanent but dies at least down to the ground, after fruiting. * In **pharmacognosy**, it indicates a drug composed usually of the tender parts of the plant axis, leaves, flowers and fruits taken from annual, biennial or perennial plants and thus it may consist of: * Part of the aerial shoot, usually the tops * The whole aerial part of the plant as Lobelia. * Occasionally the whole plant including the roots. * The whole undifferentiated plant body or thallus of the lower plants of Thallophyta as Chondrus, Fucus, Cetraria, Ergot, .etc. and Bryophyta as Sphagum. ## 1- Herba Menthae Piperitae * **Names**: Peppermint, Mentha piperita * **Parts used**: the dried leaves and flowering tops * **Botanical Origin**: *Mentha piperita* Linne Family Labiatae * It contains not less than 0.5% of volatile oil. * **Geographical source**: It is a perennial plant which grows wild in Britain and in most parts of central and southern Europe and in North Africa. It is cultivated chiefly in Britain, France, Germany and U.S.A. * **Constituents:** * Volatile oil, about 0.7 to 1.5%, which contains up to 78% of free menthol and up to 20% of menthol combined as esters. * Tannin (6-12%) * Flavonoids up to 17% * Caffeic acid derivatives. ## 1- Herba Menthae Piperitae * **Actions and Uses:** * The pharmacological actions of Mentha are largely due to volatile oils * Mentha has the following actions: spasmolytic, carminative, choleretic, diaphoretic, anti-emetic, peripheral vasodilator, antiparasitic, analgesic and antipruritic. * It relieves colonic spasm and bowel irritability. * Thus it is indicated for flatulence and irritable bowel syndrome. * It is usually administered in the form of an infusion. * The oil should be administered in the form of enteric-coated capsules. * Externally, peppermint oil or menthol as * a counter irritant, * an antiseptic and a stimulant due to its cooling on (sensitive nerves) and anesthetic properties. * It may be used to relieve itching and inflammation. * Topically traditionally used to relieve nasal congestion in common cold * Peppermint is also used as a flavouring agent in tooth paste, mouth washes and similar oral preparations. ## 1- Herba Menthae Piperitae * Aromatherapy is now a significant complementary therapy involving the use of volatile oils to heal or improve wellbeing. * **Side Effects and Contraindications:** * In case of gallstones and severs liver damage, use only after consultation with a physician. * Preparations containing peppermint oil should not be used on the face, particularly the nose, of infants and small children due to the potential risk of spasms of the tongue or respiratory arrest. * **Tests for Identity:** * Gives positive histochemical tests with Sudan III. * Menthol crystals + few drops concentrated $H_2SO_4$ + few drops of vanillin/$H_2SO_4 \longrightarrow$ Orange-yellow colour then add few drops of $H_20 \longrightarrow$ violet colour. ## 2- Herba Thymi * **Names**: Thyme * **Parts used**: the dried aerial parts * **Botanical Origin**: *Thymus vulgaris* and other *Thymus* species, Family: Labiatae * Thyme should contain not less than 1.2% volatile oil. * **Constituents:** * volatile oils over 1% (containing phenolic compounds, mainly thymol and carvacrol). * Tannins * Flavonoids * Triterpenes. ## 2- Herba Thymi * **Actions and uses** * **Actions** * The drug and its oil have a secretolytic, broncholytic and expectorant actions. * Thyme also has disinfectant, antimicrobial, antifungal and anthelmintic properties. * The flavonoids also have antispasmodic activity on the bronchial muscles. * **Uses**: * internally in the treatment of dry cough, whooping cough, bronchitis, asthma, and catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract and emphysema. * Thymol is a powerful antiseptic for internal and external use. * It is also employed as a deodorant, local anaesthetic and astringent. * Thyme is used in folk medicine as carminative, digestive and antispasmodic. ## 2- Herba Thymi * **Side Effects and Contraindications:** * When thymol is used internally as a vermifuge, abdominal pain and temporary collapse may occur. * if thyme oil was used internally in large dose may cause nausea and respiratory arrest * For this reason, the herb is preferred to the oil * The internal administration of thymol is contraindicated in entercolitis, cardiac insufficiency and during pregnancy. * **Tests for Identity:** * Gives positive histochemical tests with sudan III. * Thymol crystals + 1ml of glacial acetic acid + few drops concentrated $H_2SO_4$ + 1drop of $HNO_3$ a deep bluish green colour is developed. ## 3- Herba Lobeliae * **Names**: Lobelia, Indian tobacco * **Parts used**: the dried aerial parts * **Botanical Origin**: *Lobelia inflata Linne* * Family:- Campanulaceae * collected at the end of the flowering stage. * Lobelia contains not more than 60% of its stems and not more than 4% of foreign organic matter and * yields not less than 0.3% of total alkaloids of Lobelia calculated as lobeline. * **Constituents:** * Lobelia contains about 0.48% of alkaloids composed mainly of the * Piperidine alkaloid: lobeline (high amounts) * lobelanine, lobelanidine and other alkaloids (less amounts) ## 3- Herba Lobeliae * **Actions and Uses:** * Lobelia is bronchodilator, expectorant, respiratory stimulant and emetic (neuronal nicotinic cholinergic receptor agonist). * Lobelia relaxes the bronchial muscles and thus dilates the bronchioles. * It is given in spasmodic asthma and in the dyspnea of chronic bronchitis. * Lobeline sulphate is included in some antismoking preparation (lobeline has been found to bind to neuronal nicotinic cholinergic receptor). * **Side Effects:** * Excessive use will cause nausea and vomiting, severe heartburn, palpitations and dizziness. ## 3- Herba Lobeliae * **Contraindications:** * Because of its similarity to nicotine, the internal use of lobelia may be dangerous to susceptible populations, including * children, * pregnant women, * individuals with cardiac diseases. * Lobelia is known to cross into breast milk and should not be administered nursing mothers * **Toxicity:** * poor therapeutic index * The therapeutic dose of lobeline is very close to the toxic dose. ## 4- Herba Catharanthus * **Names**: Catharanthus or Vinca * **Parts used**: the dried whole plant * **Botanical Origin**: *Catharanthus roseus G. Don.*, previously *Vinca rosea* (Fam. Apocynaceae). * **Constituents**: * more than 150 different alkaloids have been isolated from it. * The most important of them are; vinblastine and vincristine. * There is a growing demand for vincristine than vinblastine, but the plant produces a higher proportion of vinblastine. * It is now possible to convert vinblastine into vincristine ## 4- Herba Catharanthus * **Actions and Uses:** * oncolytic activity (Anticancer, antineoplastic activity). * Vinblastine sulphate for treatment of a wide variety of neoplasma, generalized Hodgkin's disease and choriocarcinoma. * Vincristine sulphate for the treatment of acute lymphoid leukemia in children, acute monocytic leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, * **Side Effects:** * **Vinblastine induces** * gastrointestinal distress (nausea, vomiting, constipation. * Neurological symptoms can also be observed (headaches, neuritis, loss of tendon reflexes, depression) as well as respiratory difficulties and alopecia. * **Vincristine induces** * alopecia, dyspnea, bronchospasm, headaches, transient blindness, buccal ulcerations, amenorrhea and others. * **Contraindications**: Pregnancy and breast feeding. * **Toxicity**: Both vincristine and vinblastine are highly toxic. ## 5- Herba Ephedra * **Names**: Chinese ephedra, Mahuang, Cao Mahuang * **Parts used**: the dried young branch lets * **Botanical Origin:** * *Ephedra sinica Stapf*, * *E. shenanigan Tang* or other equivalent *Ephedra* species * Fam. Ephedraceae. Harvested in the fall * **Constituents**: * *phenethylamine* alkaloids (1.3%) * L-ephedrine (50-90%), * D-pseudoephedrine, L-nor ephedrine, D-nor pseudoephedrine, L-N-methyl ephedrine and D-N-methyl pseudoephedrine. ## 5- Herba Ephedra * **Actions and Uses**: * ephedrine acts as indirect sympathomimetic. * It is structurally similar to adrenaline. * It stimulates cardiac automaticity with a positive inotropic action. * It accelerates and increases the intensity of respiration and functions as a bronchodilator. * So, used in the treatment of the respiratory tract with mild bronchospasms in adults and children over the age of 6 as a bronchodilator in case of bronchial asthma. * It is local vasoconstrictor used for the treatment of nasal congestion due to hay fever, allergic rhinitis, acute rhinitis, common cold and sinusitis. * indirect sympathomimetic. * bronchodilator in case of bronchial asthma * local vasoconstrictor used for the treatment of nasal congestion * **Side Effects**: * Insomnia, motor restlessness, irritability, headaches, nausea, vomiting, disturbances of urination and tachycardia. * In higher dosage: Drastic increase in blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia and development of dependency. ## 5- Herba Ephedra * **Contraindications**: * Anxiety and restlessness, * high blood pressure, glaucoma, * impaired circulation of the cerebrum, * adenoma of prostate with residual urine and thyrotoxicosis. * **Interactions**: * Combining herbs with certain drugs may alter their action or produce unwanted side effects. * **Don't use this herb with:** * Drugs to relieve depression called MAO inhibitors. * Heart drugs called beta blockers (such as Inderal) * Tricyclic antidepressants. ## 6- Chondrus (Irish moss) * **Names**: Irish moss, Carragheen, Caragahen, Carragaheen, Carrageen. * **Parts used**: The dried bleached Thallus * **Botanical Origin**: *Chondrus crispus* Family Gigartinaceae. * **Geographical Source**: * widely distributed on the northern shores of the Atlantic ocean abundant on the coasts of Ireland and Scotland. * Large quantities are annually collected on the Massachusetts coast. * **Constituents**: * A large quantity (as high as 80%) of pectin matter named carrageenan composed of two pectinous substances, * one extractable by cold water and not yielding a jelly when the solution is concentrated and cooled, * the other extractable by hot water and yielding a stiff jelly in a 2% concentration. * These substances are calcium salts of acid esters of sulphuric acid, * the organic radicles yielding galactose, glucose, fructose and arabinose. * Oxalate of calcium, compounds of sulphur, iodine, chlorine, bromine, potassium, magnesium and sodium. ## 6- Chondrus (Irish moss) * **Action and Uses**: * Demulcent in chronic affections of the air passages * Bulk laxative * **Pharmaceutically** * as emulsifying agent for cod-liver oil and other oils, * as a jelling agent * as a binder in toothpastes, * as disintegrating agent in tablet manufacture. ## 7- Cetraria (Iceland Moss) * **Names**: Iceland moss, Iceland lichen. * **Botanical Origin**: *Cetraria islandica (Linn)* * **Geographical Source**: * Indigenous to Great Britain * widely distributed over the northern hemisphere. * It is collected chiefly in Sweden and Central Europe. * **Constituents**: * Nutritive principle =lichenin or lichen-starch (exists to extent 70%). * It dissolves in boiling water and form jelly on cooling. * Iodine renders its watery solution blue. * On hydrolysis lichenin (modified cellulose) yields a glucose. * Isolichenin (Lichenoid) * is freely soluble in cold water but very sparingly soluble in boiling water. * It is named dextrolichenin (give blue colour with iodine) * on hydrolysis yields mannose, galactose and glucose. * Bitter principle called cetrarin or citraric acid ## 7- Cetraria (Iceland Moss) * **Action and Uses**: * The demulcent action * Used in treatment of gastritis, gastric ulcer, reflux oesophagitis, vomiting and dyspepsia. * Cetraria is often used in the treatment of respiratory catarrh and bronchitis, especially on constantly recurring acute irritation in the elderly. * It generally soothes the mucous membranes. * It is useful for coughs and is sometimes given for tuberculosis, it acts to dissolve mucous congestion * it is believed that the lichen acids hinder the growth of the tubercle bacillus. * In addition, its nutritive qualities contribute to the treatment of malnourishment debility and anorexia. * Bitter stomachic * **Side Effects**: * Excessive doses may induce-nausea and looseness of the bowel while ordinary doses improve appetite, digestion and nutritive. * **Contraindications**: * The bitterness of cetrarin may be detected in the nursing mother's milk so, its contraindicated during lactation. ## 8- Secale Cornutum * **Names**: Ergot; Ergota, Ergot of Rye * **Part used**: is the sclerotium * **Botanical Origin**: *Claviceps purpurea (Fries) Tulasne* (Fam. Clavicipitaceae), * developed in the ovary of the Rye plant, *Secale cereals Linne* (Fam. Gramineae). * Ergot contains not more than 2 percent of foreign organic matter * yields not less than 0.2 per cent of the total alkaloids of Ergot, calculated as ergotamine, * of which not less than 15 percent consists of the water-soluble alkaloids of Ergot, calculated as ergometrine. * **Constituents**: * Six pairs of ergot alkaloids are now known which fall into either * the water-soluble ergometrine (or ergonovine) group * the water-insoluble ergotamine and ergotoxine" groups * The ergot alkaloids can be summarized as follows; ## 8- Secale Cornutum ### Alkaloids of ergot | Alkaloid | Formula | Discovered | | :--------------------------------------- | :--------------- | :-------------------------- | | I. Ergometrine group | Ergometrine | $C_{19}H_{22}O_2N_3$ | Dudley and Moir (1935) | | | Ergometrinine | | | | II. Ergotamine group | Ergotamine | $C_{33}H_{35}O_5N_5$ | Spiro and Stoll (1920) | | | Ergotaminine | | | | | Ergosine | $C_{30}H_{37}O_5N_5$ | Smith and Timmis (1937) | | | Ergosinine | | | | III. Ergotoxine group | Ergocristine | $C_{35}H_{39}O_2N_5$ | Stoll and Burckhardt (1937) | | | Ergocristinine | | | | | Ergocryptine | $C_{32}H_{41}O_5N_5$ | Stoll and Hofmann (1938, 1943) | | | Ergocryptinine | | | | | Ergocornine | $C_{31}H_{39}O_5N_5$ | | | | Ergocorninine | | | * They are lysergic acid derivatives, * peptide alkaloids. * less important constituents * histamine, tyramine and other amines and amino acids, acetylcholine, colouring matters, sterols (ergosterol and fungisterol) and about 30% fat. ## 8- Secale Cornutum * **Actions and Uses**: * ergot itself has been largely replaced in the pharmacopoeias by the isolated alkaloids. * ergometrine (ergonovine) produces an oxytocic (quick delivery) effect and reduces post-partum haemorrhage, * Ergotamine is effective in migraine either alone or with caffeine. * Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), prepared by partial synthesis from lysergic acid, is a potent specific psychotomimetic. * **Contraindications**: * Ergot is now contraindicated for all therapeutic use. Not covered nor recommended any more though ergotamine is still used for migraine. * It is use is discouraged in pregnant and breast feeding women and children under 10. ## 8- Secale Cornutum * **Side Effects**: * Regular use of ergotamine in migraine headaches is associated with a dependency syndrome characterized by severe chronic headache with an increase in headache intensity upon cessation of medication (ergotamine-rebound headache). * Ergometrine causes rare hypertension attacks. * **Toxicity**: * Ergotism, the consequence of the ingestion by humans of the cereals contaminated by the fungus, commonly occurred as one of two forms: * The gangarenous form (St Antony 's fire), * The convulsive form.