2nd Partial Biology PDF

2nd PARTIAL BIOLOGY **l. VITAMINS** - **Concept:** natural substance that your body needs in small amounts to function properly and stay healthy. Vitamin helps with various processes in the body, like energy production, immune function, and maintaining healthy skin, bones, and organs...

2nd PARTIAL BIOLOGY **l. VITAMINS** - **Concept:** natural substance that your body needs in small amounts to function properly and stay healthy. Vitamin helps with various processes in the body, like energy production, immune function, and maintaining healthy skin, bones, and organs. - **Water-soluble:** dissolve in water and are not stored in the body for long, they need to be consumed regularly**. (Vitamin C, B-complex vitamins B1,B2,B6,B12)** - **fat-soluble vitamins:** dissolve in fat and are stored in the body's fatty tissues and liver, they don't need to be consumed as frequently, but excess amounts can build up to harmful levels**. (Vitamin A, D, E, K)** - **What happens if a certain vitamin is missing in the body?** It can lead to specific health problems depending on the vitamin. Like vision problems, anemia, fatigue, nerve and muscle damage, weakened bone. **ll. PROTEINS** - **Concept:** is a nutrient your body needs to grow, repair itself, and stay healthy. It comes from foods like meat, fish, eggs and beans. - **Levels of protein organization (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary):** **PRIMARY**: simplest levels and refers to the sequence of amino acids in a chain **SECONDARY**: involves local folding of the amino acid chain into specific shape **TERTIARY:** overall 3D shape of the entire protein, formed by further folding and twisting. **QUATERNARY**: occurs when two or more proteins chains (subunits) join together to form a larger, functional complex. - **Functions of proteins (hormonal, enzymatic, antibodies, structural):** **HORMONAL:** some proteins like insulin, act as hormones that regulate processes such as blood sugar levels. **ENZYMATIC:** proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body, helping with digestion and metabolism. **ANTIBODIES:** help defend the body against infections **STRUCTURAL:** proteins like collagen provide structure and support to tissues such as skin, muscles, and bones. - **Amino acid:** small molecules that serves as the building block of proteins.. - **Peptide bond:** chemical bond that connects two amino acids together in a protein chain. **lll. NUCLEIC ACIDS** - **Concept:** are large molecules that store and transmit genetic information in living organisms. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid) - **Functions:** **GENETIC STORAGE**: DNA the genetic blueprint for an organism, containing the instructions needed for growth, development, and reproduction. **PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:** RNA plays a key role in translating genetic information from DNA into proteins **GENETIC TRANSMISSION:** Nucleic Acid is involved in passing genetic information from one generation to the next during reproduction. - **Differences between DNA and RNA:** **DNA** **RNA** ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------ **Structure:** Double stranded Single stranded **Sugar**: Deoxyribose Ribose **Function:** Stores genetic information Helps make proteins **Location:** Mainly in the nucleus In the nucleus and cytoplasm **Stability**: More stable Less stable - **Nucleotides (structure) and phosphodiester bond:** **NUCLEOTIDE:** are building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) STRUCTURE: the sugar and phosphate group from the backbone of the nucleic acid, while the nitrogenous base attached to the sugar. **PHOSPHODIESTER BOND**: is the linkage that connects nucleotides together to form a nucleic acid strand. **lV. MICROSCOPE AND CELL THEORY** - **Different types of microscopes:** - **Main historical events of the microscope:** 1975 founding 1980 partnership with IBM 1985 windows launch 1990 windows 3.0 1995 windows 95 2000 windows 2000 and windows ME - **Cell theory (postulates and people who postulated them)** **ROBERT HOOKE:** first to observed cells **MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN:** proposed that all plants are made of cells **THEODOR SCHWANN:** proposed that all animals are made of cells **RUDOLF VIRCHOW:** proposed that all cells come from pre-existing cells - **Endosymbiotic theory:** the endosymbiotic theory says that complex cells, like those in plants and animals, came from simple cells that took in bacteria. V. PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL - **Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell:** **PROKARYOTIC** **EUKARYOTIC** ------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------- **Nucleus**: no nucleus, DNA is in a nucleoid region Has a true nucleus that contains DNA **Size:** generally smaller (0.1-5.0 micrometers) Generally larger (10-100 micrometers) **Structure:** simple w/ no membrane-bound Complex structure w/ membrane - bound **DNA shape:** circular DNA Linear DNA **Cell division:** divides by binary fission Divide by mitosis and meiosis - **Parts of the eukaryotic cells (ORGANELLES**): nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi apparatus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, vesicles, cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, centrioles **Vl. CELL MEMBRANE** - **Fluid mosaic model (parts and functions of the cell membrane):** **FLUIDITY:** the components of the membrane can move laterally, allowing for flexibility and self-healing **MOSAIC:** the varied components (lipds, proteins, carbohydrates) - **Concentration gradient:** difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas. It typically moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration - **Transport through the membrane:** **PASSIVE:** diffusion (substances move from high to low concentration w/ out energy) Osmosis (water moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration without energy) **ACTIVE:** Pump proteins (use energy ATP to move substances from low to high) High molecular Weight ( larger molecules are moved in or out of the cell using vesicles, requiring energy) **Vll. METABOLISM** - **Endergonic and exergonic reactions:** endergonic ( they require an input of energy to occur) Exergonic (they can occur without an external energy input) - **Enzyme:** **ACTIVE SITE:** the specific part of the enzyme where the substrate binds. **SUBSTRATE:** the molecule the enzyme acts upon. **FUNCTION:** enzymes lower the activation energy needed for reactions, making occurrence faster. - **General process of photosynthesis** **REACTANTS:** Carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and light energy **PRODUCTS:** glucose and Oxygen **LOCATION:** **Thylakoids:** light -- dependent reactions occur here **Stroma:** light -- independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) occur here - **General process of cellular respiration:** **REACTANTS**: glucose and oxygen **PRODUCTS:** carbon dioxide, water and ATP **LOCATION:** **Krebs Cycle:** in the mitochondrial matrix **Electron transport chain:** in the inner mitochondrial membrane