2.1 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia.pdf

Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia GUIDE TO READING The BIG Idea Physical Geography Fertile soil between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers allowed an early civilization to flourish in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, located in what is now southern Iraq, was one area where civilization began. Its people deve...

Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia GUIDE TO READING The BIG Idea Physical Geography Fertile soil between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers allowed an early civilization to flourish in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, located in what is now southern Iraq, was one area where civilization began. Its people developed complex economic, political, and social structures. Such inventions as written language improved the quality of their lives. As different groups fought for power, they set up the world’s first empires and codified their laws. Content Vocabulary polytheistic (p. 27) city-state (p. 28) ziggurat (p. 29) theocracy (p. 29) cuneiform (p. 30) empire (p. 32) patriarchal (p. 33) The physical environment of Mesopotamia supported the development of civilization and influenced people’s religious beliefs. HISTORY & YOU Is your town located near a river? Read about how the fertile Academic Vocabulary transport (p. 29) Geography and Religion innovations (p. 30) soil of a river valley supported the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture and the birth of civilization. Uruk (p. 28) Akkadians (p. 32) Sargon (p. 32) Babylon (p. 33) Hammurabi (p. 33) Civilization depends on large permanent settlements. Fertile river valleys that can support a large population are ideal locations for such settlements. Highly organized societies then evolved in these regions. People and Places Tigris River (p. 26) Euphrates River (p. 26) Mesopotamia (p. 26) Fertile Crescent (p. 26) Sumerians (p. 26) The Fertile Crescent Reading Strategy Categorizing Information As you read, complete a chart like the one below to help you study. Political Life 26 Cultural Life Inventions The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” Mesopotamia was at the eastern end of the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Rich soil and abundant crops allowed the land to sustain an early civilization. Mesopotamia had little rain, but over the years its soil had been enriched by layers of silt—material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding, however, was unpredictable. It depended on the melting of snows in the upland mountains where the rivers began. People in the valley could not tell exactly when the floods would come or how large they would be. Therefore, people in ancient Mesopotamia learned to control the flow of the rivers. By using irrigation and drainage ditches, farmers were able to grow crops regularly. An abundance of food allowed many people to live together in cities, and civilization emerged. Mesopotamian civilization refers to the achievements of people from three general areas: Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. The Sumerians were the creators of the first Mesopotamian civilization. ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA 20°E 40°E 60°E MT ASIA MINOR err Euph r Nineveh ZA G Ancient shoreline Fertile Crescent RO Byblos SM Sidon TNS SYRIAN R ive LOWER. SUMER r Tyre DESERT EGYPT Babylon Jerusalem Jordan Susa River Umma Lagash Uruk Dead Sea Eridu Ur OT AM es at an S ea er Ri v ris Tig IA ane ASSYRIA M AKKAD ES OP dit 40°N N Nile River Me S. ea n S US ia AS sp UC Ca CA B l a ck S e a EUROPE UPPER EGYPT AFRICA A R A B I A N D E S E R T dS north harbor temple of E-nun-makh shrine of Nanna 200 meters e Riv r 200 yards Royal palace Temple Other building palace of E-Khursag canal s te hra Eup houses royal tombs temple of Nin-gal 0 E W S 400 kilometers 400 miles 20°N Lambert Conformal Conic projection A r a bia n Se a fortress ziggurat 0 0 ea court of Nanna 0 Re palace (6th century BC) “City of Ur” (A Per ra sia bi n an G Guulf lf) west harbor houses (c. 1800 BC) temple cit of Enki yw all s The Growth of Religion The physical environment affected the way Mesopotamians viewed the world. A harsh climate and frequent famines convinced them that unreliable supernatural forces controlled this world. In the presence of nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem relates: PRIMARY SOURCE “The rampant flood which no man can oppose, Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble, In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.” —in ”Mesopotamia,” from Before Philosophy, Henri Frankfort et al. 1. Location What mountain range forms the eastern border of the Fertile Crescent? 2. Location In which direction do the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow? In which direction does the Nile flow? See StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com. In Mesopotamia, people looked to religion to answer their questions about life. To them, powerful spiritual beings—gods and goddesses—permeated all aspects of the universe. The Mesopotamians identified nearly three thousand gods and goddesses. Their religion was polytheistic because of this belief in many gods. According to the beliefs of the Mesopotamians, humans were supposed to obey and serve the gods. By their nature, humans were inferior to the gods and could never be sure what the gods might do to or for them. ✓Reading Check Explaining What role did geography play in the development of Mesopotamian civilization? CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 27 Topham/The Image Works City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia Religion played a powerful role in the economic, political, and social structure of Mesopotamian city-states. HISTORY & YOU How are state and local government related in your community? Read about the connection in Mesopotamia. The origins of the Sumerian people remain a mystery. By 3000 b.c., they had established a number of independent cities in southern Mesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they gained political and economic control over the surrounding countryside. They formed city-states, the basic units of Sumerian civilization. Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surrounded by walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall six miles (10 km) long, with defense towers located every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m) along the wall. It is estimated that Uruk had a population of around 50,000 people by 2700 b.c., making it one of the largest city-states. City dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both the small houses of peasants and the larger buildings of the city officials, priests, and priestesses. People living in city-states gained a sense of identity. They now had a group to which they belonged, beyond the basic family unit. Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood for building purposes, it did have plenty of mud. Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake in the Ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 B.C. The ziggurat at Ur was constructed during the reign of Ur-Nammu around 2100 B.C. It stands approximately 70 feet (21 m) high. The temple is believed to have been for the moon god, Nanna. Ziggurats ceased to be built after Mesopotamia was conquered by the Persians in the 500s B.C. Only priests were allowed to climb to the temple. One theory suggests the steps represented a stairway to heaven, bringing the priests closer to the gods. 1. Making Inferences Why do you think priests were the only people permitted to enter the temples? 2. Drawing Conclusions Why do you suppose Sumerians built temples on top of ziggurats? hot sun until they were hard enough to use for building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably creative with mud bricks. They invented the arch and the dome, and they built some of the largest brick buildings in the world. Mud bricks are still used in rural areas of Southwest Asia today. Religion and Rulers n Sea spia. sR Regardless of their origins, kings held great power. They led armies, supervised the building of public works, and organized workers for the irrigation projects on ri Tig —anonymous Sumerian petitioner Ca “You in your judgement, you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]. Your commands, like the work of a god, cannot be reversed. Your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, are without number.” Although the economy of the Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on farming, trade and industry became important as well. The peoples of Mesopotamia made woolen textiles and pottery, but they were particularly well known for their metalwork. Copper, gold, and silver were already being used for jewelry and some tools. The Sumerians discovered that when tin is added to copper, it makes bronze. Bronze has a lower melting point, Mesopotamia which makes it easier to Black Sea Trade route cast than copper. Bronze is also a harder metal than Mediterranean Sea copper and corrodes less. Trade route Euphrates R. It could also be melted INDIA down and remade when it Persian wore out. Gulf The Sumerians imported Arabian Sea copper, tin, and timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled by land to the eastern Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in the east. The invention of the wheel, around 3000 b.c., led to wheeled carts, which made the transport of goods much easier. Sumerian city-states contained three major social groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles included royal and priestly officials and their families. Commoners worked for palace and temple estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople. Probably 90 percent or more of the people were farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials, who used them mostly in building projects. Temple officials most often used female slaves to weave cloth and grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their lands. Sea PRIMARY SOURCE Economy and Society Red The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city. This temple was often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted much of their wealth to building temples and elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who served the gods. The temples and related buildings served as the center of the city physically, economically, and even politically. Surplus food and crafts were stored in the temples, which could then be distributed or traded. The priests and priestesses who supervised the temples held a great deal of power. In fact, historians believe that in the early stages of the city-states, priests and priestesses played an important role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy—a government by divine authority. Even when power passed into the hands of kings, Sumerians believed that these rulers derived their power from the gods and were the agents of the gods. As one person said in a petition to his king: which farming depended. The army, the government, and the priests and priestesses all aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power, Sumerian kings, their wives, and their children lived in large palaces. ✓Reading Check Explaining Why were the early Mesopotamian city-states considered to be theocracies? CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 29 The Creativity of the Sumerians The Sumerians invented writing and several new technologies that made life easier. HISTORY & YOU What are some examples of how writing makes your life better? Read about Sumerian writing innovations. The Sumerians created many inventions that still affect our lives today. Probably their greatest invention was their writing. In addition, historians credit them with many technological innovations. Writing and Literature Around 3000 b.c., the Sumerians created a cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) system of writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for writing), they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. Once dried, these tablets lasted a very long time. Several hundred thousand tablets have been found. They have been a valuable source of information for modern scholars. Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for record keeping. Cuneiform texts, however, were also used in schools to train scribes, members of the learned class who served as copyists, teachers, and jurists. For boys of the upper class in Mesopotamia, becoming a scribe was the key to a successful career. Men who began their careers as scribes became the leaders of their cities, temples, and armies. Scribes came to hold the most important positions in Sumerian society. To become scribes, boys from wealthy families, many of them the sons of scribes, attended the new schools that were in operation by 2500 b.c. Young boys seeking to become scribes began school when they were small children and trained until they were young men. School days began at sunrise and ended at sunset. Discipline was harsh. The following essay, written by a teacher as a copying exercise for pupils, shows that punishments—being caned or beaten with a stick—were frequent: 30 SECTION 1 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia PRIMARY SOURCE “In the tablet-house, the monitor said to me: ‘Why are you late?’ I was afraid, my heart beat fast. I entered before my teacher, took my place. My ‘school-father’ read my tablet to me, said, ‘The word is cut off,’ caned me. He who was in charge of drawing said ‘Why when I was not here did you stand up?’ caned me. He who was in charge of the gate said ‘Why when I was not here did you go out?’ caned me. My teacher said ‘Your hand is not good,’ caned me.” —James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Scribal students spent most of their school days following the same routine. They copied and recopied standard works on clay tablets and then recited from them. Although boring, this was probably the scribe’s only way of learning how to form the cuneiform writing signs neatly and correctly. PRIMARY SOURCE “’What did you do in school?’ ‘I read my tablet, wrote it, finished it; then my prepared lines were prepared for me and in the afternoon, my hand copies were prepared for me.’” —James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Writing was important because it allowed a society to keep records and to pass along knowledge from person to person and from generation to generation. Writing also made it possible for people to communicate ideas in new ways. This is especially evident in The Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is an epic poem that records the exploits of a legendary king named Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is wise, strong, and perfect in body. He is part man and part god. Gilgamesh befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together, they set off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh feels the pain of death and begins a search for the secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and Gilgamesh remains mortal. This Mesopotamian epic makes clear that “everlasting life” is only for the gods. The Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur was found in a grave in the Royal Cemetery at Ur. The Standard has two main panels titled “War” and “Peace.” The “War” panel, shown here, depicts a Sumerian army. It should be read from the bottom up, and left to right. The top panel shows the king receiving prisoners and other spoils of war. Sumerian soldiers use spears to drive their prisoners forward, in the middle panel. It is believed that the middle panel depicts men carrying tribute to their conquerors. A king figure in the bottom left-hand corner drives a chariot, which crushes enemies under its wheels. Technology The Sumerians invented several tools and devices that made daily life easier and more productive. They developed the wagon wheel, for example, to help transport people and goods from place to place. The potter’s wheel to shape containers, the sundial to keep time, and the arch used in construction are other examples of Sumerian technology. The Sumerians were the first to make bronze out of copper and tin, creating finely crafted metalwork. The Sumerians 1. Describing What events are depicted in these panels? 2. Interpreting What does the “War” panel reveal about Sumerian society? also made outstanding achievements in mathematics and astronomy. In math, they devised a number system based on 60. They used geometry to measure fields and to erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians charted the heavenly constellations. A quick glance at your watch and its division of an hour into 60 minutes should remind you of our debt to the Sumerians. ✓Reading Check Identifying Name two major inventions of the Sumerians, and tell how those inventions affect our lives today. CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library 31 Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia control of land and water. Located on flat land, the Sumerian city-states were also open to invasion by other groups. Strong leaders established empires and codified the laws of Mesopotamia. Akkadian and Babylonian Empires HISTORY & YOU How might a written code of laws change the system of justice in a country? Read about the law code Hammurabi developed. As the number of Sumerian city-states grew and the city-states expanded, new conflicts arose. City-states fought for To the north of the Sumerian city-states were the Akkadians (uh KAY dee uhnz). They spoke a Semitic language. Around 2340 b.c., Sargon, leader of the Akkadians, overran the Sumerian city-states and set up the first empire in world history. An empire is a large political unit or state, HAMMURABI’S CODE Hammurabi’s code was written on a 7-foot (2-m) monument called a stela. Although there were earlier Mesopotamian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi is the most complete. It influenced law codes in later civilizations. The code’s influence is apparent in the precepts of the major world religions including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam though there are also significant differences. THE INFLUENCE OF HAMMURABI’S CODE If anyone commits a robbery and is caught, then he shall be put 1 to death.—Hammurabi’s code Thou shalt not steal.—Bible (Old Testament) If a man wishes to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children, then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the usufruct [right of use] of field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her 2 children.—Hammurabi’s code The upper section of the stela shows Hammurabi standing in front of a seated sun god. Those who die and leave wives, a will shall provide their wives with support for a year, provided they stay within the same household.—Quran If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.—Hammurabi’s code 3 If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.—Bible (Old Testament) 1. Comparing What similarities do you see between Hammurabi’s code and the Bible and the Quran? 2. Speculating Why do you think the images were included at the top of the stela with Hammurabi’s code? Art Media/Heritage-Images/The Image Works In some ways the laws of Hammurabi’s code were harsher than earlier Sumerian laws. The laws were also more progressive in the areas of family law and women’s rights. usually under a single leader, that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are often easy to create, but they can be difficult to maintain. The rise and fall of empires is an important part of history. Attacks from neighbors caused the Akkadian Empire to fall by 2100 b.c. After that, the system of warring citystates lasted until 1792 b.c. In Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad, Hammurabi (HA muh RAH bee) came to power. He gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thus creating a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After his death in 1750 b.c., however, a series of weak kings was unable to keep the empire united, and it finally fell to new invaders. Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: Tigris River, Euphrates River, Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Sumerians, polytheistic, Uruk, city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, transport, innovations, cuneiform, Akkadians, Sargon, empire, Babylon, Hammurabi, patriarchal. Main Ideas The Code of Hammurabi For centuries in Mesopotamia, laws had regulated people’s relationships with one another. Hammurabi’s collection of laws provides great insight into social conditions there. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were severe, and they varied according to the social class of the victim. A crime against a noble by a commoner was punished more severely than the same offense against a member of the lower class. Moreover, the principle of retaliation (“an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”) was a fundamental part of this system of justice. Hammurabi’s code took seriously the duties of public officials. Officials who failed to solve crimes had to make personal restitution to the victims or their families. Judges could be penalized for ruling incorrectly on a case. The law code also included what we would call consumer-protection laws. Builders were held responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a house collapsed and caused the owner to die, the builder was put to death. The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract, which made the marriage legal. Mesopotamian society was patriarchal—that is, men dominated the society. Hammurabi’s code shows that women had far fewer rights in marriage than did men. A woman’s place was definitely in the home. A husband could divorce his wife if she failed to fulfill her duties, was unable to bear children, or tried to leave home to engage in business. Even harsher, a wife who neglected her home or humiliated her husband could be drowned. Fathers ruled their children as well. Obedience was expected: “If a son has struck his father, he shall cut off his hand.” If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him. Hammurabi’s laws clearly covered almost every aspect of people’s lives. ✓Reading Check Identifying Identify five aspects of Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code of Hammurabi. 2. Explain how the physical environment affected the way Mesopotamians viewed the world. 3. Describe how temples served as the center of Mesopotamian cities. 4. Create a chart like the one shown below to list Sumerian achievements and the effects of these achievements on our lives today. Achievements Effects on our lives today Critical Thinking 5. BIG Idea Analyzing How did the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers support a strong economy in Mesopotamia? 6. Evaluating Which type of government— separate city-states or an empire—would have been most advantageous to the people of Mesopotamia? 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the image on page 31. What does it reveal about life in Sumer? Writing About History 8. Expository Writing Explain why Hammurabi’s code was a significant development. Develop a set of laws based on the Code of Hammurabi that would apply to your community today. Explain why your code differs from that developed by Hammurabi or why it is similar. (ISTORY /.,).% For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central. 33