2025 Space Booklet FINAL PDF

NAME:  Term 1A- Scientific Endeavours through Space Learning Objectives Comfortable Clarify 1A.1 Define scientific model 1A.2 Compare and contrast geocentric and heliocentric models given the key compo...

NAME:  Term 1A- Scientific Endeavours through Space Learning Objectives Comfortable Clarify 1A.1 Define scientific model 1A.2 Compare and contrast geocentric and heliocentric models given the key components of each 1A.3 Apply critical thinking to strengths and weaknesses of scientific models 1B.1 Explain the steps of the scientific method and how it relates to the development of a scientific theory 1B.2 Compare and contrast the Steady State Theory and the Big Bang Theory given the key components of each 1B.3 Evaluate the role of observation and evidence in Scientific Theory 2A.1 Evaluate the credibility of scientific sources credible authorship, citations, date of publication, and bias 2A.2 Discern between misinformation and disinformation 2B.1 Recognise and describe tactics use to spread misinformation in scientific contexts (FLICC) 2B.2 Explain what the Dunning-Kruger effect is and how it can lead to the spreading of misinformation 3A.1 Identify the independent, dependent, and control variables of an experiment 3A.2 Formulate an aim and a testable hypothesis for an experiment 3A.3 Communicate experimental methodology 3B.1 Construct effective results tables and graphs to display data 3B.2 Identify errors of the experiment, their impact on the data collected, and how to improve the method 3C.1 Evaluate an experiment in terms of validity, accuracy, precision, and reliability 3C.2 Summarise an experiment in a concise conclusion 1  Prior Knowledge Check-in What do you already know about Space? Let’s find out. Use the Space (get it?) below to brainstorm everything you know or want to know about Space! Match the following space things to the correct definitions: Letter Term Definition Star A. A system bound by gravity that consists of a star and the things that orbit it Solar System B. All existing matter and space considered as a whole; the cosmos Planet C. A giant ball of hot gas- mostly hydrogen and helium Comet D. A swirling mound of gas and dust; baby stars! Galaxy E. A celestial object made of ice and dust that, when near the sun, forms a tail of gas and dust particles Universe F. A ball of rock or gas orbiting a star Black hole G. Millions and billions of stars, gas, and dust held together by gravitational attraction Asteroid H. A region of space with a gravitational field so intense that no matter or radiation can escape Nebula I. A small, rocky object orbiting the sun 2  Section 1A- The Progression of Understanding the Solar System 1A.1 Define scientific model 1A.2 Compare and contrast geocentric and heliocentric models given the key components of each 1A.3 Apply critical thinking to strengths and weaknesses of scientific models Throughout history, people have long looked to the skies for answers. People across the globe observed the night skies and attempted to develop theories that would describe our place in the universe. Egyptians catalogued the stars, used sundials to tell time, and developed a yearly calendar that consisted of 365 days. Indian astronomers charted solstices, equinoxes, solar and lunar eclipses, and planetary movements. Mayan astronomy demonstrated highly accurate observations and sophisticated mathematics to devise their complex calendars. Chinese astronomers developed a calendar that was 365.25 days and divided the sky into 28 parts to chart the position of the moon as it crossed the sky. As time has passed, observations have grown, and theories have become more refined through the incorporation of new evidence. What is a scientific model? A scientific model is a physical and/or mathematical and/or conceptual representation of a system of ideas, events, or processes. Examples: Model of a cell Terrarium (model of an ecosystem) Atomic models 3 Heliocentric vs Geocentric Models of the Solar System It is now widely understood that the sun is the centre of our solar system. This wasn’t always the case. Early astronomers, such as Aristotle and Ptolemy, believed that the Earth was the centre of our solar system. With limited access to technology, astronomers observed the cosmos with the naked eye. Imagine that you are living in a time with no modern technology- what would you observe in sky each day? The sun would rise and set in the same points. The stars and moon would appear to move around the sky. You would appear to stay put. Would it be logical to assume that the Earth was stationary and everything else revolved around it? It could certainly be argued that yes, it is logical. To devise a model is to take into account knowledge of the laws of science and construct a mental picture of how something works. Astronomers would then use the model that they have come up with to predict the behaviour of the system in the future. The Geocentric Model (geo- meaning Earth, and -centric meaning centred upon,) was once widely accepted by Greek astronomers. At the time that the Greeks were developing the Geocentric Model of the Solar System, the laws of Physics were largely unknown. They instead held the following beliefs: the Earth is the centre of the universe, and it is stationary. the planets, the Sun, and the stars revolve around the Earth. the circle and the sphere are “perfect” shapes, so all motions in the sky should follow circular paths, which can be attributed to objects being attached to spherical shells. objects obeyed the rules of “natural motion,” which for the planets and the stars meant they orbited around the Earth at a uniform speed Now, we may view this as a quite a novice approach compared to what we now know. It is important to bear in mind that the Greeks were simply tracking celestial bodies (things in space) with the naked eye. The Geocentric Model remained dominant for centuries. However, even in its 4 most complex form, it still produced errors in its predictions. Thus, astronomers sought to develop a more sophisticated model. Nicolaus Copernicus is the astronomer who was accredited with devising the first version of our modern view of the Solar System- the Heliocentric (helio- meaning sun,) Model. Copernicus believe the following: The sun is the centre of Solar System The Earth revolves around the Sun All other planets revolve around the sun as well This development offered a solution to one of the problems that the Geocentric Model had- the phenomenon of retrograde motion. Retrograde motion is the apparent backward motion of a planet compared to other planets. A simple way to understand this is that essentially one planet is “lapped” by another SCAN THIS TO SEE A SIMPLE GIF OF due to the difference in their orbit. RETROGRADE MOTION To see how the heliocentric model was able to explain retrograde motion, check out this YouTube Video: Retrograde Motion. 5 Even though the Heliocentric Model was able to solve some problems that the Geocentric Model had (retrograde motion,) it still had difficulties predicting the location of the planets. The was because Copernicus thought that the orbits of the planets were circular when, in fact, they are actually elliptical (egg-shaped). The Heliocentric Model was refined to include this feature thanks to the discoveries of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. The revised Heliocentric Model was comprised of these seven main principles: Celestial bodies do not all orbit around a particular point. The centre of Earth is the centre of the moon’s orbit around the Earth. All the spherical bodies rotate around the Sun (Which is near the centre of the universe). The distance between the Earth and the Sun is a minor fraction of the distance from the Earth and the Sun to the stars. Thus, parallax is not perceptible in the stars. The stars do not really move. The Earth does. 6  The Earth describes an orbit around the Sun, causing the apparent annual migration of the Sun. The Earth has more than one kind of motion. The Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun causes the seeming reverse in direction of the motions of the planets. Over time, with more observations, a more refined model was better able to make predictions was developed. The major differences between the Geocentric and Heliocentric Model were the following: The centre of Solar System; Sun vs Earth Heliocentric implies that Earths spins on its own axis causing the illusion of movement in the stars Geocentric claimed planets moved in circular orbits, whereas the Heliocentric model was revised to stipulate elliptical shaped orbits Astronomers weren’t done there! In the early 20th century Heliocentrism was replaced by Galactocentrism, which put the Milky Way in the centre of the universe. This model was developed by American astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Doust Curtis. Notice that the model is no longer describing just our Solar System but is now describing a model for the universe! Later, Edwin Hubble confirmed the existence of other galaxies and developed Hubble’s Law which states that galaxies are moving away from the Earth at speed that is proportional to their distance from it. Which brings us to our next topic: The Big Bang cosmological model of an acentric universe that is in constant expansion! 7  Section 1B- The Progression of Understanding the Universe 1B.1 Explain the steps of the scientific method and how it relates to the development of a scientific theory 1B.2 Compare and contrast the Steady State Theory and the Big Bang Theory given the key components of each 1B.3 Evaluate the role of observation and evidence in Scientific Theory The Steady State Theory vs The Big Bang Theory Attempting to discern the origins of the universe is no small feat. When and how did the universe begin? Was there a beginning? If there was, when will it end? The study of the answers to these questions is called cosmology. Following Edwin Hubble's discoveries about the expanding universe, two major theories emerged - Steady State Theory and the Big Bang Theory. What is a scientific theory? A scientific theory is a structured explanation to explain a group of facts or phenomena in the natural world. In everyday speech, a theory tends to indicate that the statement made is nothing more than a hunch. This is very different in the scientific realm. The development of a theory has multiple steps involved. These steps are referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method involves the following steps: 1. Make an observation 2. Form a hypothesis (predictions based on your observation) 3. Design an experiment to test your hypothesis 4. Analyse the data 5. Draw conclusions; accept or reject hypothesis 6. Reproduce the findings of the experiment If the experiment cannot be reproduced or the hypothesis is rejected, then it’s back to the drawing board! The scientists will then need to revise their 8 experiment. A reproducible experiment can lead to the development of a scientific theory. A scientific theory is not the end result of the scientific method; theories can be proven or rejected, just like hypotheses. And theories are continually improved or modified as more information is gathered, so that the accuracy of the prediction becomes greater over time. Steady State Theory The Steady State Theory proposes that the universe has always existed and will exist forever. This theory claims that galaxies are constantly moving away from each other. In the extra space left between the galaxies, new stars and galaxies are created. These new stars and galaxies replace those that move away, which allows the universe to always looks the same. Big Bang Theory: Nowadays, the more accepted theory is called the Big Bang Theory. This theory states that the universe is expanding and that it all began 14 billion years ago with a huge explosion; a big bang! It’s a very complicated theory with lost of moving parts, but essentially, we are looking at the following timeline. There was a beginning and the universe existed in a teeny, tiny spot of pure energy called the singularity; there was no space or time at this point Then, the bang! In a fraction of a second, the singularity ‘exploded’ and time and space began; it was VERY HOT and matter was moving VERY FAST In the same second, the universe expanded to the size of a pea and tiny particles of matter collided causing light to appear for the first time! 9  Still in the same second, protons and neutrons formed- the building blocks of atoms! Again, same second, the universe is still hot and expanding rapidly, but its starting to slow down- about the size of the Solar System now Within 5 minutes (big jump in time) things had slowed down enough that protons and neutrons could come together and form the nuclei of simple atoms (Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium) Little while later, 3000 years, universe was about 1/1000th its current size and things had finally slowed down enough that electrons were able to be attracted to the nuclei that had formed; the first atoms! Millions of years later attraction between the simple atoms due to gravity pulled a bunch of them together to form stars; massive amounts of pressure mushed these atoms together to form more complex atoms (for example, if mush together a lithium nucleus (3 protons) and helium nucleus (2 protons) you make a boron nucleus (5 protons)) A billion years later, galaxies began to form 14 billion years later-ish, you were born! 10 Evidence for the Big Bang Theory Ultimately, there was evidence found to support the Big Bang Theory. This same evidence disproved the Steady State Theory. The red shift: The red shift provides evidence for an expanding universe. Essentially, stars that are moving away from Earth tend to appear a little more “red” in colour, whilst stars moving toward Earth appear a little more ‘blue.’ Most stars appear ‘red.’ This evidence supports the Big Bang Theory but causes problems for the Steady State Theory. A steady state universe could only expand if new stars and galaxies replaced those that moved away. There is no way to explain how these new stars and galaxies could be created from nothing. The elements: The amount of hydrogen and helium in the universe supports the Big Bang Theory. According to the Steady State Theory, the only way that helium can be produced is by reactions that happen in stars. About 8.7 per cent of the atoms in the universe are helium. This is far more than what could have been produced by the stars. However, this amount of helium could have been created by a massive explosion. The afterglow: When George Gamow and Ralph Alpher proposed their version of the Big Bang Theory in 1948, they calculated that the universe would now, about 15 billion years after creation, have a temperature of 2.7 degrees Celsius above absolute zero. That's -270 degrees Celsius. Anything with a temperature above absolute zero emits radiation. The nature of the radiation depends on the temperature. Gamow predicted that, because of its temperature, the universe 11 would be emitting an 'afterglow' of radiation. This afterglow became known as cosmic microwave background radiation. This radiation was discovered by accident in 1965. Engineers trying to track communications satellites picked up a consistent radio noise that they couldn't get rid of. The noise wasn't coming from anywhere on Earth because it was coming from all directions. It was the cosmic microwave background radiation predicted by Gamow. Its discovery put an end to the Steady State Theory, leaving the Big Bang Theory as the only theory supported by evidence currently available. Even Fred Hoyle, who had ridiculed the idea of a ‘big bang', admitted that the evidence seemed to be the most correct. The evolution of our understanding of the universe is enabled by increasingly sophisticated technology that allows astronomers to observe the universe in ways there weren’t able to do before. 12  REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 1. Compare and contrast the Geocentric and Heliocentric models by filling in this Venn diagram. GEOCENTRIC BOTH HELIOCENTRIC 2. Outline the strengths and weakness of the Geocentric model. 13 3. Outline the strengths and weaknesses of the Heliocentric model. 4. What is a scientific model? How does the evolution of the Geocentric model to the Heliocentric model demonstrate scientific progress? 5. What is a scientific theory? How does a scientific theory differ from the everyday use of the word theory? For example, if someone were to say “Oh, that’s just a theory.” 14 6. Annotate the following flowchart to describe the steps of the scientific method 15 7. Compare and contrast the Steady State and Big Bang Theories by filling in this Venn diagram. STEADY STATE BOTH BIG BANG 8. Outline the strengths and weakness of the Steady State Theory. 9. Outline the strengths and weaknesses of the Big Bang Theory. 16 10. What is a scientific theory? How does the evolution of the Steady State Theory to the Big Bang Theory demonstrate scientific progress? 11. What evidence for the Big Bang Theory disproved the Steady State Theory? 17 12. Use the internet to investigate the progression of other Space theories and models. Be sure to search for “kid-friendly” explanations. It is important that you understand the information that you searched for. Be wary of Chat GPT. It can provide simplified answers, but it is known to get scientific concepts incorrect. Example Searches: “How did people explain gravity before Isaac Newton’s Theory of Gravity?” “What is the currently accepted Theory of Gravity?” Veritasium: “What is Gravity?” o More advanced “How Gravity Actually Works” Example Models/Theories: Gravity James Webb Telescope Origins of the Solar System Pluto: why did it get reclassified? 18  Practical: Shoebox Activity Objective: to demonstrate how scientific ideas evolve in accordance with the development of new technology Procedure: Your teacher will decide if they would like to do the activity using one box or multiple boxes for a gallery style walk through 1) The box or boxes will be filled with random objects 2) Students will make a guess about what is in the box/boxes only by shaking the box. Write down a detailed guess in the table below based on what you heard 3) The teacher will turn off the lights and allow the students to make a second prediction, but this time they can put their hand in the box. Write down a detailed guess based on what you heard/felt 4) The teacher will turn on the light and the students will be able to look into the box and describe what they see. Write down a detailed description of the objects. Table 1: Predictions of contents of shoeboxes using only sound Box Prediction 1 2 3 4 5 19 Table 2: Predictions of contents of shoeboxes using only sound and touch Box Prediction 1 2 3 4 5 Table 3: Predictions of contents of shoeboxes using only sound, touch, and sight Box Prediction 1 2 3 4 5 20 Discussion Questions 1. How did your predictions change as you were able to use more of your senses? 2. With relation to the development of scientific models and theories, what did your sense represent? 3. How does this activity reflect the refinement of scientific models and theories over the years of space exploration? 21  Section 2A- Assessing Sources 2A.1 Evaluate the credibility of scientific sources by assessing the source for credible authorship, citations, date of publication, and bias 2A.2 Discern between misinformation and disinformation What is scientific literacy? An ability to use scientific knowledge, understanding, and inquiry skills to identify questions, acquire new knowledge, explain science phenomena, solve problems, and draw evidence-based conclusions in making sense of the world, and to recognise how understandings of the nature, development, use and influence of science help us make responsible decisions and shape our interpretations of information. Why is scientific literacy important? In the current day and age, scientific literacy is increasing important as the number of sources from where we can get our information is far greater than it used to be. Algorithms also tend to skew the information we see to conform to our biases. If you click on a few links or watch a few TikTok videos that make claims about the Earth being flat, you are likely to go down a rabbit-hole of Flat Earth conspiracy theory videos. It is increasingly difficult to discern between what is real and what is fake. As science dictates much of our day-to-day lives, scientific literacy is necessary for us to navigate through the world with some understanding of how it works. How can you become scientifically literate? You can learn how to assess a source and determine if the information they are providing is credible or not and then analysing the content for signs of bias, errors, or flaws in reasoning. Source credibility can be ascertained a few ways: Who is the author? Are they an expert? Have they listed their credentials? Citations provided? When was it published? Is it current information? Is it unbiased? Does it only tell one side of the story? 22 There have been many articles circulate over the last 50 years spreading misinformation about phenomena. Some are the result of misinformation, false information spread without the deliberate intention to mislead (someone got the facts wrong!) or disinformation, false information spread with deliberate intention to mislead the reader/viewer. One such hoax was, “The Big Mars Hoax.” The rumours were circulated as a series of chain emails. Someone would receive the email and then forward it to their contacts. The Astronomical Society of South Australia (a reputable government source,) compiled some of the emails that circulated. See if you can spot some red flags in their claims. Following excerpt from: https://www.assa.org.au/resources/solar-system-eclipses/the-big- mars-hoax/ Hoax: Planet Mars will be the brightest in the night sky starting August. It will look as large as the full moon to the naked eye. This will cultimate on Aug. 27 when Mars comes within 34.65M miles of Earth. Be sure to watch the sky on Aug. 27 12:30 am. It will look like The Earth has 2 Moons. Don't Miss it..... The next time Mars may come this close is in 2287. NOTE: Share this with ur friends as NO ONE ALIVE TODAY will ever see it again. Hoax: Mars the Red Planet is about to be spectacular! This month and next, Earth is catching up with Mars in an encounter that will culminate in the closest approach between the two planets in recorded history. The next time Mars may come this close is in 2287. Due to the way Jupiter's gravity tugs on Mars and perturbs its orbit, astronomers can only be certain that Mars has not come this close to Earth in the Last 5,000 years, but it may be as long as 60,000 years before it happens again. The encounter will culminate on August 27th when Mars comes to within 34,649,589 miles of Earth and will be (next to the moon) the brightest object in the night sky. It will attain a magnitude of -2.9 and will appear 25.11 arc seconds wide. At a modest 75-power magnification Mars will look as large as the full moon to the naked eye. Mars will be easy to spot. At the beginning of August it will rise in the east at 10p.m. and reach its azimuth at about 3 a.m. By the end of August when the two planets are closest, Mars will rise at nightfall and reach its highest point in the sky at 12:30a.m. That's pretty convenient to see something that no human being has seen in recorded history. So, mark your calendar at the beginning of August to see Mars grow progressively brighter and brighter throughout the month. Share this with your children and grandchildren. NO ONE ALIVE TODAY WILL EVER SEE THIS AGAIN. Usually these emails come with images of Mars and the Moon - side by side appearing the same size. Strangely enough, they are variations of original authentic emails generated in 2003 when Mars did in fact make one of its closest approaches to Earth in a very long time. But even then, Mars was still a long long way from Earth. In August 2003, if you observed Mars through a good telescope using at least 75x magnification - then Mars could look the same apparent size (in the telescope's eyepiece view) as the full Moon could look to the naked eye view. This information has been doctored and recycled each August since 2003 and is now completely out of date. The Facts Some basic factual information about Mars are as follows: Mars could only appear as "large as the full moon to the naked eye" if you were in a spacecraft approaching Mars - and very close! The size (angular diameter) it takes in the sky is a tiny 8 seconds of arc. There are 60 seconds of arc in 1 minute of arc - and there are 60 minutes of arc in 1 degree. In comparison the (full) moon is about 1/2 degree or 1,800 seconds of arc (Mars is 8 seconds of arc or 225 times smaller). 23  Earth 'catches up' to Mars in their respective orbits roughly every 2 years - and that is when they are closest to each other - referred to as opposition. Because both orbits are ellipses, and not circular, the distance between the two planets varies each time they are closest to each other. At closest they are about 57 million kilometres - at farthest just less than 100 million kilometres. But each encounter is (at the moment) becoming further away, and then gradually they will be closer again at each encounter. This is a 15 year cyclic phenomena that has been happening for... well since the solar system has been in its current configuration - billions of years. BUT - never will the two planets be so close that Mars "looks as big as the moon". At the absolute closest, Mars will still just look like a (reasonably) bright pinkish star to the naked eye. Unless you are going to be dead before within the next two years... you will see Mars at a 'close' approach again! And the best views will always be through a quality telescope. There are quite a few web sites that discuss the "Mars is Big" hoax. Urban Legends Reference Pages: Mars Spectacular Bogus e-mails regarding Mars' Close Approach 24  Section 2B- Identifying Tactics used to Spread False Science 2B.1 Recognise and describe tactics use to spread misinformation in scientific contexts (FLICC) 2B.2 Explain what the Dunning-Kruger effect is and how it can lead to the spreading of misinformation The spreading of misinformation and disinformation utilises tactics to appeal to the reader/viewer in an effort to convince them of their “theories.” The acronym FLICC can be used to summarise some key strategies used: Fake experts, Logical fallacies, Impossible expectations, Cherry picking, Conspiracy theories. Fake Experts Presenting an unqualified person or institution as a source of credible information Logical Fallacies Arguments where the conclusion doesn’t logically follow from the premises. 25 Impossible Expectations Demanding unrealistic standards of certainty before acting on the science. Cherry Picking Carefully selecting data that appear to confirm one position while ignoring other data that contradicts that position. This often occurs when people use personal anecdotes as evidence for larger issue. For example, my brother got food poisoning from eating at McDonald’s (personal story) so no one should ever eat at any McDonalds’s (large claim). Conspiracy Theories Proposing a secret plan to implement a nefarious scheme such as hiding a truth or perpetuating misinformation. 26  Investigate these concepts further by downloading the Cranky Uncle App on your device. The Dunning-Kruger Effect Why is it so easy for misinformation to spread? The FLICC tactics can often relate to disinformation- the intentional spreading of falsities. However, many of the time there are no ill- intentions, but the people spreading the information simply do not understand the science. This can be attributed to the Dunning-Kruger Effect. The Dunning-Kruger Effect is a cognitive bias in which people with limited competence in a particular domain overestimate their abilities. Essentially, people that are not experts or do not have the skill set required to understand disciplines of science are making bold claims. This is sometimes described as meta-ignorance (or ignorance of ignorance). This meta ignorance arises because of lack of expertise prevents the individual from fully comprehending complexities of very intricate scientific systems. They don’t know what they don’t know. When a person studies a topic more in depth, they come to realise that, previously, they’d only scratched the surface. As a result, their confidence in their competence diminishes. They now know that there is a significant amount that they do not yet know about the topic. They know enough to trust individuals who are experts in the field. It’s worthwhile to note that some scientists do not believe there is enough reputable data to support the Dunning-Kruger Effect, as much of the data collected to support the theory came from self-reports, which are inherently biased. That being stated, it has been the topic of studies since its emergence in 1999 to recent articles posted in 2024. A good take home message: It’s ok not to know something! It’s better to acknowledge that you do not know something and ask questions about it, than to pretend you know something that you don’t. It’s also ok to admit to being wrong and state that you are still learning about a topic. In order to learn, it’s important to keep an open mind. It’s important to ask questions if a fact doesn’t fit with something you previously learnt. 27 28  REVIEW QUESTIONS 2 1. This screenshot is taken from theflatearthsociety.org. It is a list of resources that they used to support their belief that the earth is flat. a. What do you notice that would tip you off that their resources are not credible? b. By using credible resources, find three facts that debunk the Flat Earth Theory. 29 2. Some people believe that the moon landing was faked. One of their theories is that NASA faked the landing to avoid humiliation and to ensure that it continued to get funding. Bill Kaysing and Randy Reid wrote a book called We Never Went to the Moon: America’s Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle! They claim NASA raised 30 billion dollars to go to the Moon, but it was actually used to “pay off” many people. What strategy did Kaysing and Reid use to spread misinformation? 3. Assess the following article for credibility and use of tactics to spread misinformation. Highlight/Annotate your findings. NASA CONFIRMS EARTH WILL EXPERIENCE 15 DAYS OF DARKNESS IN NOVEMBER 2016 Posted by Emma on October 24, 2016 NASA CONFIRMS EARTH WILL EXPERIENCE 15 DAYS OF DARKNESS IN NOVEMBER 20162016-10- 24T17:19:15+00:00 under Uncategorized No Comment We have come across many reports regarding earth and its changes in recent times and not many materialize. However, this time NASA has confirmed that earth will experience total darkness for 15 days in November 2016 starting from November 15 to November 29. According to NASA this phenomenon was in the pipeline for a long period and the astronomers from NASA have informed that the world will experience a strange event from November 15 at 3:00 am and it is likely to continue until November 30, 4:45 pm. The officials believe this blackout is the result of an astronomical event between Venus and Jupiter. Charles Bolden, head of NASA issued a 1000 page document which explains the event in detail to the White House. The reports claim that Venus and Jupiter will be very closely engaged and they will be separated by a mere 1 degree. Venus will surpass to the south-west of Jupiter which results in Venus shining 10 times brighter than Jupiter and this light will heat up the gases in Jupiter causing a reaction. The resulting gas reaction will release a never before seen amount of hydrogen into the space which will make contact with sun at around 2:50 am. 30  4. Use the following graph to answer the below questions: a. What is being measured on the x-axis? b. What is being measured on the y-axis? c. There are three notable trends on the graph. Describe what each means. 1st Trend (upward straight line that starts at “none”) 2nd Trend (downward curved line that starts at high confidence and drop to average competence) 3rd Trend (upward curved line that ends on expert) 31  CLASS ACTIVITY: CAN YOU CONVINCE YOUR CLASSMATES? Our Semester 1 course is all about humanity pursuing a Mission to Mars. There are a variety of reasons for space travel- but why do people want to colonise Mars? Here are some of the reasons: Search for life Conduct in-depth research A back-up planet in case we destroy Earth But why Mars and not other planets? In many ways, Mars is the planet that is the most similar to Earth; therefore, would provide humans with the easiest transition to living on another planet. Things to consider when colonising a new planet: Atmospheric composition (what is the atmosphere made of?) Length of a day Length of a year Average temperature Gravity Atmospheric pressure (how much force does the atmosphere apply on things) Size The class will be divided into groups of 3-4 and assigned a planet. Your mission is to sell your planet as better candidate for colonisation than Mars using FLICC tactics. You will also need to attempt to debunk the claims of others; you need to be able to spot their tactics to spread misinformation! One group will be assigned Mars and will need to prove that a Mission to Mars is the only Mission that makes sense. Stand strong among the misinformation! 32 Your Planet is: ______________________________ Use the space below to make notes for your argument. Create a short presentation/poster and aim to sell your planet in a 2-3 minute presentation. 33 Use this space below to summarise factual information about the other planets so you don’t succumb to their misinformation! FACTS MISINFORMATION & TACTICS USED MERCURY VENUS JUPITER SATURN NEPTUNE 34  PRACTICAL: Atmospheric Pressure Demonstrations Background: The atmosphere refers to all of the gases enveloping a planet. Earth’s atmosphere consists of primarily nitrogen gas (78%) and oxygen gas (21%). Mars’ atmosphere primarily consists of carbon dioxide (95%) and nitrogen gas (3%). The planets in our solar systems have different gases of differing proportions. Atmospheric pressure is a force that is the result of the gas molecules in the atmosphere. Factors influencing the atmospheric pressure on different planets include the gases present in the atmosphere and the gravity of the planet. The following demonstrations will show how air can exert pressure. Demonstration #1- Marshmallow in a syringe Materials Marshmallow Syringe Procedure 1. Remove the plunger from the syringe 2. Place marshmallow in syringe and gently place the plunger back in the syringe 3. Make initial observations (take note of the size of the marshmallow) 4. Place a cap over the end of the syringe 5. Push the plunger in; observe 6. Pull the plunger out; observe Aim:______________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 35 Hypothesis:_______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ Observations/Results: Table 1: Observations regarding the size and shape of the marshmallow when the syringe is pushed in and pulled out Observations Diagram (include gas molecules) Initial Plunger pushed in Plunger pulled out Guided Discussion: 1) Summarise your table results above __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ 36  2) Provide a scientific explanation for why the above results occurred __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ Demonstration #2- Upside down water glass Materials Glass Water (coloured, if you’re fancy) Index card Method 1. Pour enough water to fill about 1/5 of the glass 2. Wet the rim of the glass with water using your finger 3. Press the index card to rim of the glass 4. Flip upside down 5. Let go Aim:______________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Hypothesis:_______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 37 Observations: __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Discussion/Diagram: use an annotated diagram to explain your observations Demonstration #3- Water + glass + candle = magic Materials Glass Candle Plate Water (coloured if you’re fancy) Matches/lighter Method 1. Place the plate on a flat surface 2. Pour water onto the plate to cover most of the surface 3. Place the candle in the centre of the plate 4. Light the candle 5. Place the glass over the candle 6. Observe 38 Aim:______________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Hypothesis:_______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Observations: __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Discussion/Diagram: use an annotated diagram to explain your observations 39 Demonstration #4- Can Demo Materials Pop can 25-30 mL of water Clear tub filled with cold water Bunsen burner Tongs Method 1. Pour 25-30 mL of water into the pop can 2. Light the Bunsen burner 3. Using the tongs, heat the can with water over the Bunsen burner 4. Flip upside down into the clear tub full of cold water 5. Observe Aim:______________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Hypothesis:_______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Observations: __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Discussion/Diagram: use an annotated diagram to explain your observations 40  Atmospheric Pressure and YOU! If you want to be an astronaut and colonise other planets, you need to take into consideration the atmospheric pressure on each planet. Humans are adapted to the air pressure on Earth. If you were to place humans in different atmospheric pressures, the human would experience many unpleasant effects. You may have heard that the Blobfish is the ugliest fish in the ocean and seen a picture like the one in Figure 1. This title isn’t Figure 1 Blobfish on land really fair to the poor Blobfish though. The Blobfish is adapted to living in the depths of the oceans where the pressure is much greater. A Blobfish living in its natural habitat looks more like Figure 2. Checkout the video, What's Inside A Blobfish | What's Inside? | Science Insider - YouTube. Figure 2 Blobfish in its natural habitat Do a little research and discover the different atmospheric pressures on Venus, Earth, Mars, and Jupiter. Be sure to compare them values in the same units (pascals are that standard unit used in science, but those numbers can be pretty big; use kPa or atmospheres instead). Table 1: Atmospheric Pressures in ___________________________(indicate which unit) Earth Venus Mars Jupiter 1. Which planet(s) would make you look like a blobfish on land? Why? __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 41  2. Which planet(s) would make you look like the can from demo 4? Why? __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ Video Resources: Demo #1 Marshmallow Marshmallow video Demo #2 Upside down water glass Upside Down Glass of Water Trick - Science Experiment | Educational Videos by Mocomi Kids - YouTube Demo #3 Candle water The Rising Water - Science Experiment | Why Does Water Rise Up - Explained | - YouTube Demo #4 Incredible Can Crush - Science World The Sci Guys: Science at Home - SE2 - EP2: Air Pressure Can Crush - Can Implosions - YouTube 42  Section 3A- Experimental Design 3A.1 Identify the independent, dependent, and control variables of an experiment 3A.2 Formulate an aim and a testable hypothesis for an experiment 3A.3 Communicate experimental methodology Variables A scientific experiment involves identifying which variable will be changed, which will be measured, and which need to be tightly controlled. Independent variable (IV): something that you change in the experiment. For example, if you are conducting a lab how temperature affects the rate (speed) of a reaction, the independent variable of the experiment would be temperature as you are going to observe how different temperature could induce different effects on the speed of a reaction. Dependent variable (DV): the data you are collecting (how will you measure if the IV is working. For example, the rate of the chemical reaction would be the dependent variable, because the speed of the reaction is influenced by the different temperatures. Controlled variables: variable that needs to be kept constant throughout the experiment. In the above experiment, the control variables would be concentration of the chemicals, the surface area of the chemicals, and pressure. It is recommended to list out the variables in the table form as it is easier to see the variables. 43 How to develop an appropriate aim and hypothesis The aim of an experiment is a concise statement that describe the purpose of the experiment. It should include reference to the independent and dependent variables. Examples: Start of aim Independent Variable Dependent Variable To determine the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction between vinegar and baking soda To investigate the effect of sunlight on rate of photosynthesis in blue-green algae To observe the effect of caffeine on the heart rate of teenagers A hypothesis is a logical prediction of the outcome of your experiment. IT DOES NOT HAVE TO BE CORRECT! Use the following framework to help you formulate your hypotheses. If the (IV is changed), then the (DV will respond by), because (insert a reference to scientific theory to back up your prediction) If the (IV is changed ) then the (DV will respond by ) because (insert science) If the temperature is then the rate of reaction will because more particles will increased, increase have enough energy for a successful collision to occur If the amount of sunlight the rate of photosynthesis will because sunlight provides is decreased, decrease the energy necessary for photosynthesis to occur If caffeine consumption is the teenager’s heart rate will because caffeine is a increased, increase stimulant 44 Materials and Procedure At Haileybury, we are fortunate to have lab technicians to help up set up our experiments. We need to thoroughly communicate exactly what we require and exactly how we will perform the experiment. It’s a bit like a recipe. If you wanted to bake cookies and someone told you to get some flour, eggs, butter, sugar, and chocolate chips and whack them in the over until they’re done, there’s a good chance they might not come out very edible! Materials lists require specific amounts and quantities of all things required to perform the experiment. The procedure needs to be listed in specific steps. Someone who has never done the experiment before should be able to do it with ease. The following considerations should be made: Written in the past tense Provide enough detail for accurate reproduction of the experiment Do not use a narrative style of writing; use of pronouns should be avoided Everything referenced in the procedure should have been listed in the materials list May include a diagram to demonstrate experimental set-up 45 Example: 1. Label three 150 mL beaker A, B, and C 2. Place beaker A on a balance and tare it to 0 3. Add 50 grams of soil to the beaker 4. Remove the beaker from the balance 5. With a gloved finger, poke a hole about 3 cm deep in the centre of the soil 6. Place one bean seed in the hole and cover it with soil 7. Repeat steps 2-6 for beaker B and C 8. Place Beaker A under the UV lamp and set a timer for 2 hours 9. Remove from UV lamp after 2 hours. Repeat daily for 7 days 10. Place Beaker B under the UV lamp and set a timer for 4 hours 11. Remove from UV lamp after 4 hours. Repeat daily for 7 days 12. Place Beaker C under the UV lamp and set a timer for 6 hours 13. Remove from UV lamp after 6 hours. Repeat daily for 7 days Watch this video of a dad attempting to make a PB&J using recipes written by his kids to get the gist of the amount of detail required. 46  Section 3B- Presenting Data 3B.1 Construct effective results tables and graphs to display data 3B.2 Identify errors of the experiment, their impact on the data collected, and how to improve the method Once you’ve performed your experiment, its important to communicate your data effectively. Often, tables and graphs are used to display the data collected in the experiment. If graphs and tables are not properly constructed, it can be difficult to understand the information that is being presented. Rules for constructing tables 1. Give your table an informative title  Example: Table 1: The average amount of bean plant growth when exposed to varying amounts of sunlight 2. The first row will consist of column labels  Put the independent variable on the lefthand side; include units in the label  Put the dependent variable on the right side; include units in the label  If there were multiple trials for the DV, there should be subheadings for each trial and a column for an average Independent Dependent variable with units Variable with units Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Variation 1 Variation 2 Variation 3 3. Only numbers in the empty boxes! You’ve already included units it your headings 4. Ensure number input are to the same number of decimal places 5. Check to make sure the correct data has been entered and that the boxes have the same formatting Table 1: The average amount of bean plant growth when exposed to varying amounts of sunlight Hours of sunlight Amount of growth (cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average 2 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.2 4 2.5 2.4 2.6 2.5 6 3.1 3.0 3.2 3.1 47 Rules for constructing a graph 1. Give your graph an informative title 2. Label the axes (with units!) The dependent variable will go on the y-axis The independent variables will go on the x-axis 3. Set the scale for your axes; your data should take up most of the graph Look at your maximum data point for y-axis and x-axis. These values should be as close to the top (y-axis) and right (x-axis) of the graph as possible Establish your scale; are you going to go up by 1s, 2s, 3s etc. Errors and Improvements Rarely are experiments flawlessly executed. As a scientist, we need to be able to identify possible errors that occurred, analyse the effect that it may have had on the data (higher, lower, inaccurate), and suggest an improvement to the method or materials to minimise the errors. Avoid suggesting human errors! Often, human errors can be fixed by doing the trial again. Example: “I forgot to read the temperature because I was talking.” In that case, start that trial from the beginning. Sometimes human errors can be rectified by improving the materials used. Example: The time recorded for the rate of reaction may be inaccurate due to the reflex time of a human and can be improved by using an automatic timer. 48 It is always important to reflect on your methodology to consider an improvement for your experiment. Error Impact on Data Improvement Experiment was set up in a Temperatures recorded were Ensure experiment is draughty room and heat lower than anticipated due to performed in area without a supply from the Bunsen the unpredictable nature of draught or a wind shield is burner varied due to the air the flame and heat not being set-up around the experiment movement directed to the reaction vessel 49  Section 3C- Evaluating the Experiment 3C.1 Evaluate an experiment in terms of validity, accuracy, precision, and reliability 3C.2 Summarise an experiment in a concise conclusion Evaluation the experiment Its important for scientists to evaluate how good their experiment really is. We use the following terms to describe our evaluation of the experiment. 1. Validity Validity tells us if an experiment actually measures what it’s supposed to measure. If an experiment is valid, it means all the variables are controlled properly, and the results are directly answering the question you're trying to investigate. Example: If you want to test how light affects plant growth, a valid experiment would make sure that only the amount of light changes, while keeping things like water, soil, and type of plant the same. 2. Accuracy Accuracy is about how close your measurements are to the real or correct value. The more accurate a measurement, the closer it is to the true value. Example: If you’re measuring the length of a pencil, and the actual length is 15 cm, an accurate result would be something like 14.9 cm or 15.1 cm. 3. Precision Precision is about how close repeated measurements are to each other, even if they’re not close to the true value. High precision means you’re consistently getting similar results. Example: If you measure the pencil’s length five times and keep getting 14.7 cm, your measurements are precise because they’re close to each other, even if they’re a little off from the true value of 15 cm. 50 4. Reliability Reliability means that an experiment produces the same results each time it’s done under the same conditions. If an experiment is reliable, others should be able to repeat it and get the same outcome. Example: If different groups perform the plant growth experiment using the same setup and all get similar results, the experiment is considered reliable. In short: Validity: Does it measure what you’re asking? Accuracy: How close are your measurements to the real value? Precision: How close are your measurements to each other? Reliability: Can you repeat the experiment and get the same results? These concepts help scientists make sure their experiments and data are trustworthy! Writing a conclusion A conclusion should provide a concise summary of the experiment and its findings. It should include the following components: 1. Refer to the aim  Was it a successful experiment? If you had a significant number of errors, please don’t then say it was a successful experiment  Was the hypothesis correct? 2. Identify notable findings  Include data (this means numbers!) 3. Does your data support or contradict your hypothesis? 4. Recognise limitations  This is the errors and improvements  If there are many errors, focus on what improvements would be needed for a better executed experiment 5. Real world implications  If the errors are minimal, suggest next steps (a more in-depth experiment? Real world application? 51 Example: Source: Modified from worksheet by M.J. Krech -- ttp://home.earthlink.net/~mjkrech/design.htm 1. Restate the overall purpose of the experiment (include IV and DV in this sentence.) One format: The purpose of the experiment was to investigate the effect of the (IV) on the (DV) Example: The purpose of the experiment was to investigate the effect of stress on the growth of bean plants by comparing the growth of bean plants subjected to stress for 15 days with a control (non-stressed plants.) 2. What were the major findings? (Summarize your data and graph results) Example: No significant difference existed between the height of stressed plants and non- stressed plants. As the graph shows above, the average height of all the stressed plants was 10.2 cm and the average height of all the non-stressed plants was 10.4 cm. 3. Was the hypothesis supported by the data? One format: The hypothesis that (insert your hypothesis) was (supported, partially supported, or not supported.) Please do not ever use the word “prove” – we do NOT prove hypotheses true in science. Example: The hypothesis that stressed plants would have a dramatically lower mean height was not supported. 4. How could this experiment be improved? Example: This experiment relied on an artificial source of stress – just digging out the plants at one time and replanting them. Perhaps this experiment could be improved by simulating real-life stressors, including drought and lack of nutrients in soil. NOT acceptable: This experiment would have been better if we had done it correctly – we did sloppy work and made careless measurements. 5. What could be studied next after this experiment? What new experiment could continue study of this topic? Example: Additional investigations using various sources of stress at more frequent intervals would be a good additional experiment. Also, other crops could be subjected to the same experiment, such as corn and squash. Perhaps scientists could find a chemical that the plants release during stress. 52  REVISION QUESTIONS 3 1. Is plant growth affected by the colour of light in which it grows? Independent variable: Dependent variable: Some Controlled variables: 2. Which laundry detergent removes stains more effectively? Independent variable: Dependent variable: Some Controlled variables: 3. Does the type of oil affect the size of popcorn? Independent variable: Dependent variable: Some Controlled variables: 4. Which type of paper towel is more absorbent? Independent variable: Dependent variable: Some Controlled variables 53  5. The following data came from a chemistry practical where students were trying to discover the which brand of vinegar had the highest acetic acid content. Table 1- the concentration of acetic acid in different brands of vinegar Brand of vinegar Concentration of acetic acid (%) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Woolworths 1.1 5.5 14.2 6.9 Coles 2.2 3.5 3.4 3.0 Black & Gold 4.1 4.3 4.2 4.2 a. What is the independent variable? b. What is the dependent variable? c. Assess the data above for precision d. The supermarkets released the actual concentrations of acetic acid in the different brands on vinegar. Comment on the accuracy of the student’s data. Table 2- Actual concentrations of acetic acid in different brands of vinegar Brand of vinegar Concentration of acetic acid (%) Woolworths 4.1 Coles 5.0 Black & Gold 7.8 54  Practical: Bouncing Ball Practical Introduction For this investigation, you will be measuring rebound height of a bouncing ball. We are going to use this experiment to look at experimental design, validity, and reliability. This will be done by dropping a ball(s) from a measured height and filming it in slow-motion to take note of the rebound height. Variables You can pick to investigate either: - One ball dropping from different heights. - Different balls dropping from the same height of 1.5m. Points to consider: How many types of the independent variable are you going to choose? o For example, how many different heights or what types of balls or surfaces? (At least three) How many trials are you going to complete? (At least three) Are you measuring from the top of the ball or the bottom? (Need to be consistent) How are you going to film your experiment and measure the results; what observations are you going to make? How precise are your measurements going to be? Suggested Apparatus 1 x (or more) types of balls 1 x stopwatch 1 x (or more) types of surfaces 1 x phone camera (preferably with slow 1 x measuring tape / metre rule motion) 1 x balance 1 x bowl / plate to place on the balance 55 Section A (Planning the experiment) 1. Title of the investigation. _______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is the aim of the experiment. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is your hypothesis for this experiment? _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 4. What are the variables that are relevant to your investigation? Independent (changing) Dependent (measuring) Controlled (keeping constant) 5. How many trials are you planning to do? _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 56 Conducting the experiment 1. Record the mass of the ball using the balance. 2. Set up a measuring tape / ruler(s) / tape measure on a wall or off a table so that the floor is 0 metres. 3. Set up your camera so that it can see the entire measurement scale and start recording. 4. Select your drop height, measuring from either the top or bottom of the ball. 5. Drop the ball onto the surface. 6. Watch the recording and find the height of the rebound. 7. Record the results in an appropriate table. 8. Repeat the experiment and record the averages. 9. Repeat changing your chosen independent variable (height or type of ball). Section B (Collecting data) Table 1- _______________________________________________________________ Ball Type Mass (kg) Table 2- _____________________________________________________________ Trial 1 2 3 4 5 Average 57 Draw a graph of your average results: Title ___________________________________________________________________ Discussion questions 1. Identify two trends in your results. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Identify two errors in your methodology. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 58 3. Identify and explain how both errors could have impacted your results. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Identify two improvements you could make to your methodology that would decrease or eliminate the impact of these errors. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Comment on the level of validity in the experiment. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Comment on the level of reliability in the experiment. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Suggest how you could improve the reliability of the experiment. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 59 8. Write a conclusion for the experiment. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 60  Name:__________________ Using the stars below, trace out a constellation of your own design. Once you’ve designed the shape of your constellation, write the story behind the constellation. Don’t be afraid to get creative