2025 Catholic Schools English Study Guide PDF

2025 Catholic Schools Academic Junior High Decathlon English Individual Subject Test Study Guide Based on the 7th and 8th grade Common Core Standards for English Language Arts and Grammar Girl Presents the Ultimate Writing Guide for Students...

2025 Catholic Schools Academic Junior High Decathlon English Individual Subject Test Study Guide Based on the 7th and 8th grade Common Core Standards for English Language Arts and Grammar Girl Presents the Ultimate Writing Guide for Students by Mignon Fogarty Based on 2024 AJHD Study Guide with new worksheets and updated practice tests included. Permission to copy for Academic Decathlon team and classroom use only. Electronic distribution limited to Academic Decathlon team and classroom use only.  2025 English Individual Subject Test Study Guide Table of Contents Pages Introduction to the Study Guide 1-2 Definitions of Parts of Speech 3 - 15 Phrases, Clauses and Sentences 16 - 20 Capitalization and Punctuation 21 - 31 Spelling 32 - 37 Roots of Words 38 - 39 Prefixes and Suffixes 40 - 41 Commonly Misspelled Words 42 - 43 Homophones 44 - 49 Worksheets and Review Quizzes 50 - 115 Worksheet 1: Identifying Parts of Speech (Part 1) 51 Worksheet 2: Identifying Parts of Speech (Part2) 52 Worksheet 3: Parts of Speech: Nouns 53 Worksheet 4: Parts of Speech: Verbs 54 - 55 Worksheet 5: Verb Tenses 56 - 57 Worksheet 6: Irregular Verbs and Verbals 58 Worksheet 7: Parts of Speech: Pronouns (Part 1) 59 - 60 Worksheet 8: Parts of Speech: Pronouns (Part2) 61 Worksheet 9: Parts of Speech: Adjectives and Adverbs (Part 1) 62 - 63 Worksheet 10: Parts of Speech: Adjectives and Adverbs (Part 2) 64 Worksheet 11: Parts of Speech: Prepositions and Conjunctions 65 Review Quiz #1: Parts of Speech 66 - 67 Worksheet 12: Sentences: The Basics 68 - 69 Worksheet 13: Sentence Parts: Phrases and Clauses (Part 1) 70 - 71 Worksheet 14: Sentence Parts: Phrases and Clauses (Part 2) 72 Worksheet 15: Sentence Construction: Simple, Compound, Complex 73 - 74 Worksheet 16: Sentence Construction: Commas and Conjunctions 75 - 76 Worksheet 17: Sentence Construction: Consistent Verb Tenses and Parallelism 77 - 78 Review Quiz #2: Sentences 79 - 80 Worksheet 18: Subject-Verb Agreement 81 Worksheet 19: Misplaced, Dangling, and Squinting Modifiers 82 - 83 Worksheet 20: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Elements 84 - 85 Worksheet 21: Capitalization and Basic Punctuation (Part 1) 86 Worksheet 22: Capitalization and Basic Punctuation (Part 2) 87 - 88  Table of Contents Worksheet 23: Commas (Part 1) 89 - 90 Worksheet 24: Commas (Part 2) 91 - 92 Worksheet 25: Commas (Part 3) 93 - 94 Worksheet 26: Colons and Semicolons (Part 1) 95 Worksheet 27: Colons and Semicolons (Part 2) 96 Worksheet 28: Dashes and Hyphens (Part 1) 97 - 98 Worksheet 29: Dashes and Hyphens (Part 2) 99 - 100 Worksheet 30: Parentheses and Quotation Marks (Part 1) 101 Worksheet 31: Parentheses and Quotation Marks (Part 2) 102 - 103 Worksheet 32: Apostrophes and Italics 104 - 105 Review Quiz #3: Capitalization and Punctuation 106 - 107 Worksheet 33: Prefixes, Suffixes and Root Words (Part 1) 108 Worksheet 34: Prefixes, Suffixes and Root Words (Part 2) 109 Worksheet 35: Spelling and Homophones (Part 1) 110 - 111 Worksheet 36: Spelling and Homophones (Part2) 112 Review Quiz #4: Words: Prefixes, Suffixes, Roots, Spelling, and Homophones 113 - 114 Practice Tests 115 - 136 Practice Test 1 116 - 126 Practice Test 2 127 - 136 Answer Keys 137 - 204 Worksheet 1: Identifying Parts of Speech (Part 1) 138 Worksheet 2: Identifying Parts of Speech (Part2) 139 Worksheet 3: Parts of Speech: Nouns 140 Worksheet 4: Parts of Speech: Verbs 141 - 142 Worksheet 5: Verb Tenses 143 - 144 Worksheet 6: Irregular Verbs and Verbals 145 Worksheet 7: Parts of Speech: Pronouns (Part 1) 146 - 147 Worksheet 8: Parts of Speech: Pronouns (Part2) 148 Worksheet 9: Parts of Speech: Adjectives and Adverbs (Part 1) 149 - 150 Worksheet 10: Parts of Speech: Adjectives and Adverbs (Part 2) 151 Worksheet 11: Parts of Speech: Prepositions and Conjunctions 152 Review Quiz #1: Parts of Speech 153 - 154 Worksheet 12: Sentences: The Basics 155 - 156 Worksheet 13: Sentence Parts: Phrases and Clauses (Part 1) 157 - 158 Worksheet 14: Sentence Parts: Phrases and Clauses (Part 2) 159 Worksheet 15: Sentence Construction: Simple, Compound, Complex 160 - 162  Table of Contents Worksheet 16: Sentence Construction: Commas and Conjunctions 163 - 164 Worksheet 17: Sentence Construction: Consistent Verb Tenses and Parallelism 165 - 166 Review Quiz #2: Sentences 167 - 168 Worksheet 18: Subject-Verb Agreement 169 Worksheet 19: Misplaced, Dangling, and Squinting Modifiers 170 - 171 Worksheet 20: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Elements 172 - 173 Worksheet 21: Capitalization and Basic Punctuation (Part 1) 174 Worksheet 22: Capitalization and Basic Punctuation (Part 2) 175 - 176 Worksheet 23: Commas (Part 1) 177 - 178 Worksheet 24: Commas (Part 2) 179 - 180 Worksheet 25: Commas (Part 3) 181 - 182 Worksheet 26: Colons and Semicolons (Part 1) 183 Worksheet 27: Colons and Semicolons (Part 2) 184 Worksheet 28: Dashes and Hyphens (Part 1) 185 - 186 Worksheet 29: Dashes and Hyphens (Part 2) 187 Worksheet 30: Parentheses and Quotation Marks (Part 1) 188 - 189 Worksheet 31: Parentheses and Quotation Marks (Part 2) 190 - 191 Worksheet 32: Apostrophes and Italics 192 - 193 Review Quiz #3: Capitalization and Punctuation 194 - 195 Worksheet 33: Prefixes, Suffixes and Root Words (Part 1) 196 Worksheet 34: Prefixes, Suffixes and Root Words (Part 2) 197 Worksheet 35: Spelling and Homophones (Part 1) 198 - 199 Worksheet 36: Spelling and Homophones (Part2) 200 Review Quiz #4: Words: Prefixes, Suffixes, Roots, Spelling, and Homophones 201 - 202 Practice Tests 203 - 204 2025 IT English Study Guide Introduction Introduction to the English Individual Subject Test Study Guide Individual English Test Resources The individual subject test in English is based on the Common Core Standards for English Language Arts for 7th and 8th grade. An excellent resource to study is Grammar Girl Presents the Ultimate Writing Guide for Students, by Mignon Fogarty. However, decathletes may use any standard English textbook if desired. A Note from the AJHD Study Guide and Test Writer Language is versatile: it is full of hard and fast rules, while also leaving space to explore and experiment. It is what makes reading and writing so much fun, to see how both others and you can play (yes, play!) with language to create something interesting, creative, or even funny! While the rules can be overwhelming and frustrating at times (and it can be hard to remember when there is not a specific rule but just a guideline), they are there to help us communicate and learn to express ourselves – adapting our language to both formal and informal settings. So I hope you find some enjoyment in learning these rules; perhaps you’ll even morph into, well, not a grammar snob but – like Grammar Girl and me! – a grammar advocate. P.S. One last note: while an Oxford (or serial) comma is not grammatically necessary, it is grammatically clearer; I shall therefore always encourage (but never mandate) its use. ;) Format of Individual English Test All individual subject tests are 50-question multiple-choice tests. The test does not penalize for incorrect answers; only correct answers count toward the test score. In addition to the test, between three to five additional tie-breaker questions are included at the end of the test. Tie-breaker questions may be multiple choice questions or short- answer questions. Tie-breaker questions are scored only to break ties. Tie-breaker scores do not count toward the scores for the overall team competition. Worksheets Worksheets that cover the content in the study guide are included. Complete the worksheets before taking the multiple-choice practice tests. Page references are included in the Worksheet headings on the Answer Keys to guide students to the source material for each worksheet. GG refers to the Grammar Girl book page references and SG refers to the Study Guide content pages 3-47. 1 2025 IT English Study Guide Introduction Section Quizzes It is recommended that students take each section quiz after completing and reviewing the worksheets and review questions for each section. Answer keys are provided for each quiz. Practice Tests The two practice tests consist of 50 multiple-choice questions each in the same format as the questions on the competition test at the Academic Junior High Decathlon. Study the test results for areas that may need more review. Send the students back to the materials to better prepare themselves for the day of the competition. Be aware that questions on the actual test will cover material that may or may not be highlighted by the Review Questions, quizzes, or worksheets in the study guide. Tips for Studying Begin studying AJHD resource materials as soon as possible! Do not wait until the month before the test to begin studying. Read study materials for detail. Understand the concepts and important information. Review materials on a regular basis. Set up a quiet study area, without distractions. Create your own set of flashcards on index cards and keep them handy to review when traveling to and from school. Become familiar with multiple-choice format tests. Try to write multiple- choice questions based on study materials. Take the practice exams included in the study guide. Set a time limit for completing the test. Use a bubble test form to become familiar with filling out an answer sheet. 2 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Noun: The name of an object, such as a person, place, idea, or thing. Common noun: A noun that is not specific to a particular individual object. Common nouns are not capitalized. Proper noun: The names of people, towns, or countries. All proper nouns are capitalized. Examples: Salem, California, Mrs. Adams Possessive noun: A noun that expresses possession, ownership, or connection. Example: Mary's eyes Collective noun: A noun that names a class or group. Examples: jury, audience, family, couple Compound noun: A noun that is made up of more than one word. Examples: brother-in-law, bedroom, tennis shoe Appositives: Noun or noun phrases that rename nouns or pronouns. Example: The party hosts, Susan and Bobby, greeted the guests. (The proper nouns Susan and Bobby act as appositives because they rename the subject party hosts.) 3 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun. Subjective or Personal pronoun: A pronoun that refers to a specific person or thing and acts as the equivalent of a noun. Objective pronoun: A pronoun that shows the receiver of an action. Subjective pronoun vs. Objective pronoun: When a personal pronoun acts as the subject or subject complement, use the subjective pronoun. When a personal pronoun is used as a direct object, indirect object, or object of a prepositional phrase, use an objective pronoun. Subjective Pronoun Objective pronoun Singular: I, you, he, she, it me, you, him, her, it Plural: we, you, they us, you, them Examples: You and I will be friends for life. (subjective pronoun) The winner of the contest is she. (subjective pronoun) Norman gave the letter to me. (objective pronoun) Demonstrative pronoun: A pronoun that identifies or points to a noun and often acts as an adjective. Examples: this, that, these, those This is interesting. That is my backpack. Possessive pronoun: A pronoun that shows possession or ownership. Examples: Mine, our, yours, his, hers, its, and theirs. The book is theirs. 4 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Interrogative pronoun: A pronoun that is used to ask a question. Examples: Who, whom, whose, which, and what. Who versus Whom: Use who when referring to the subject of a clause. Use whom when referring to the object of a clause. Example: Who is going to the dance? To whom is the letter addressed? Indefinite pronoun: A pronoun that points out a nonspecific person, place, or thing; some indefinite pronouns may also act as adjectives. Singular Indefinite Pronouns: anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, either, no one, nobody, nothing, someone, somebody, and something. Plural indefinite pronouns: both, few, several, and many Indefinite pronouns that may be singular or plural: all, any, more, most, none, and some 5 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Adjective: A word that modifies a noun or pronoun by telling which one, how many, or what kind. Adjectives typically precede the noun or pronoun they modify or follow a linking verb. Proper adjective: An adjective that is formed from a proper noun. Examples: American flag or Brazilian coffee. Descriptive adjective: An adjective that describes a noun or pronoun. Examples: red flag or mild coffee. Demonstrative adjective: An adjective that points out a particular noun. Examples: this, that, these, and those This chair is broken. Indefinite adjective: An adjective that gives a quantity, but does not give an exact number. Examples: many, more, fewer, several, and all. Numerical adjective: An adjective that gives an exact number. Examples: one, two, fifth, second, and five. Interrogative adjective: An adjective which is used to ask a question. Example: What type of cake would you like for your birthday? Predicate adjective: An adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject. Example: The students are intelligent. 6 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by telling when, where, how, to what extent, or how often. Interrogative adverb: An adverb that is used in asking a question. Examples: how, when, where, and why. Comparative adverb: An adverb that shows a comparison or degree. Superlative adverb: An adverb that describes the highest or lowest degree of an action. Adjective Comparative Superlative fast faster fastest far farther farthest little less least much more most Adverb Comparative Superlative well better best badly worse worst Conjunctive Adverb: A word or phrase that joins two independent clauses and indicates the relationship between the clauses. When joining two independent clauses with a conjunctive adverb, precede the adverb with a semicolon and follow it with a comma. Examples: John promised me he would arrive by noon; however, he was quite late. Joan arrived for the first day of school on the bus; meanwhile, Anisha arrived in a taxi. Common conjunctive adverbs: accordingly however now also incidentally otherwise anyway indeed similarly besides instead specifically certainly likewise still consequently meanwhile subsequently conversely moreover then finally nevertheless therefore furthermore next thus hence nonetheless 7 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Verb: A word that expresses action, being, or state of being. Verbs either express a condition (one exists) or express an action. Verb endings and helping verbs are used to convey information about time. Transitive verb: An action verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning. Example: The host escorts his guest to the head table. Escorts is the transitive verb and guest is the direct object. Intransitive verb: An action verb with no direct object. Example: The students cheered. Auxiliary verb: A verb that indicates the verb tense, mood, or voice of a main verb is an auxiliary verb. Auxiliary verbs come before main verbs. Common auxiliary verbs: am are has does can might is be had did could shall was being have will may should were been do would must Linking verb: A verb that links a subject to a predicate. Linking Verbs describe a state of being and most often are a form of the verb “to be.” Linking verbs also include verbs that reflect a person’s or thing’s condition, verbs such as “seems,” and “appears.” Linking verbs also include sensory verbs. Think of the five senses: “feels,” “tastes,” “smells,” “sounds,” and “looks.” The reason that condition and sensory words work as linking verbs is that they closely perform as the verb “to be” performs—all impart information about a state of being. Forms of the verb “to be”: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been Some verbs can function as both a linking verb and an action verb! If you can substitute is, are, was, or were for a verb, it is a linking verb! 8 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Verb Tenses Look at the charts summarizing verb tenses. Use these charts to help determine the tense of a verb. See what the indicators are for a verb and find a box with those indicators. Please note that in the “Past Tense” block, the verbs might have an ending in “-ed”, “-d”, “-n”, or “-t.” The last three endings are to indicate irregular past tense verbs, verbs such as said; torn, beaten, broken; and put, cost, hurt. Some irregular verbs end in “-g” and “-k,” such as sang and drank, or “-w,” such as grew or knew. Be aware that irregular verbs look irregular! Perfect tenses indicate something about the timing surrounding the state of being or the action. The timing expressed in perfect tenses generally means that (1) something has happened at a different time from something else or (2) will happen at a different time from something else or (3) is ongoing. Progressive verbs are verbs indicated by an “- ing” ending that should indicate something that is ongoing, or progressive, in other words, moving along or progressing. Infinitive verbs: The infinitive form of a verb is the basic form of a verb. Infinitive verbs are often preceded by the word to. Example: to revolve; to go; to know Troublesome verbs: The following verbs are often misused. Be sure to know the definition of each verb in order to determine the correct verb to use. Present Past Present Perfect Definition lie lay has/have lain to rest or recline lay laid has/have laid to put or place I had lain in bed all day. Monty laid the magazine on the table. sit sat has/have sat to take or keep a seat set set has/have set to place or fix in position He sat down at the table. Please set the utensils on the table. rise rose has/have risen to ascend raise raised has/have raised to lift Christ has risen to heaven. The construction crew raised the roof beam. 9 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Irregular verbs: Verbs that do not follow the above formula for forming verb tenses. Common irregular verbs: Simple Present Simple Past Present Perfect bear bore has/have borne begin began has/have begun blow blew has/have blown break broke has/have broken bring brought has/have brought choose chose has/have chosen draw drew has/have drawn drink drank has/have drunk eat ate has/have eaten fly flew has/have flown forget forgot has/have forgotten freeze froze has/have frozen go went has/have gone know knew has/have known mistake mistook has/have mistaken prove proved has/have proven see saw has/have seen shake shook has/have shaken shine shone or shined has/have shone or shined sing sang has/have sung sink sank has/have sunk slay slew has/have slain spring sprang or sprung Has/have sprung strive strove or strived has/have striven or strived swim swam has/have swum take took has/have taken throw threw has/have thrown tear tore has/have torn tell told has/have told wake waked or woke has/have waked, woke, or woken wear wore has/have worn weave wove has/have woven weep wept has/have wept write wrote has/have written 10 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Verb moods: a verb or verb form which indicates whether the verb expresses a fact (indicative mood), a command (imperative mood), or a wish or possibility (subjunctive mood). Indicative mood: mood used to state facts, opinion, and questions. The verb in the indicative form expresses an action or a state of being. Examples: Dolphins are mammals. We rode the bus to school. Imperative mood: mood used to make a request or a command. The verb in the imperative mood is the present tense and makes a direct call to action. Often, the subject of the sentence implied and takes the form of the second person singular pronoun you. Examples: Mop the floor Please leave the room. Subjunctive mood: mood that expresses conditions contrary to facts and situations involving requests because the situations have not yet become a reality. Indicators of the subjunctive mood include such verbs as ask, insist, request, and suggest. Examples: Tabitha suggested that Jerry spend more time studying before class. 11 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Verb tense: Past Present Future Formed by: Verb + -ed, -d, -n, or -t Verb or verb + -s (Will or shall) + verb Action occurs in the present. Shows: Action completed in the past. Action occurs regularly or is generally Action that will happen in the future. true at any time. Sammy calls. Examples: I cooked the meal. I will cook the meal for Thanksgiving. She cooks. Verb tense: Past Perfect Present Perfect Future Perfect Formed by: Had + (past tense of verb) (Has or have) + (past tense of verb) (Will or shall) + have + (past tense of verb) Action was completed at an indefinite Action completed in the past that time in the past. An action in the future that will happen Shows: comes before another action Action begun in the past that continues before another action in the future. completed in the past. into the present. I have cooked everything. I will have cooked the turkey Examples: I had cooked the meal. She has cooked everything. before the guests arrive. I have cooked all day long. Verb tense: Past Progressive Present Progressive Future Progressive (Past tense of verb to be) + Present tense of the verb “to be” (Will be or shall be) + Formed by: (verb + - ing) (is, am, are) + (verb + -ing) (verb + -ing) An ongoing action that took place in An ongoing action that will take place Shows: An action that is presently in progress. the past. in the future. I was cooking the meal Examples: I am cooking. I will be cooking all afternoon. before the baby awoke. Verb tense: Past Perfect Progressive Present Perfect Progressive Future Perfect Progressive Formed by: Had + been + (verb + -ing) (Has or have) + been + (verb + -ing) (Will or shall) + have + been + (verb + -ing) An ongoing action in the past An ongoing action begun in the past Future ongoing action that will be completed Shows: interrupted by another past action. that continues into the present. before a future stated time. I had been cooking when I have been cooking all day. I will have been cooking all day by the Examples: the bell rang. She has been cooking all day. time the party begins. 12 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Conjunction: A word that connects words, phrases, or parts of sentences. Coordinating Conjunction: A conjunction that joins similar words, phrases, or clauses. To remember the coordinating conjunctions, use the mnemonic device: “FAN BOYS” for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Know the meaning of each conjunction and its function. Conjunction Meaning Function for because establishes a relationship and also; in addition to combines ideas of equal value nor no choice eliminates a possibility but however establishes a contrast or a choice adds a possibility yet however establishes a contrast so because establishes a relationship Subordinate Conjunction: A conjunction that joins an independent clause and a dependent clause. Common subordinate conjunctions: after because once that when although before since though where as if so that unless whether as if in order that than until while Correlative Conjunction: A coordinating conjunction that operates with a paired word or words. Common correlative conjunctions: neither…nor both…and either…or not only…but also as…as whether…or Conjunctive Adverbs: Adverbs that connect independent clauses and indicate the relation of the clauses to the rest of the sentence. Refer to “Adverb” for a list of common conjunctive adverbs. 13 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Preposition: A word that relates a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause to some other word in the sentence. Common prepositions: about beside from outside under above besides in over underneath across between inside past unlike after beyond into plus until against but like regarding unto along by near respecting up among concerning next round upon around considering of since with as despite off than within at down on through without before during onto throughout behind except opposite to below for out toward Common groups of words that work as one according to in addition to next to along with in front of on account of as well as in place of outside of because of instead of rather than A prepositional phrase is a modifying phrase that normally consists of an object, any modifiers of the object, and a preposition. The object of the prepositional phrase is the noun, pronoun, gerund, or noun phrase that follows the preposition. Prepositional phrases that modify nouns are adjectival prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases that modify verbs are adverbial prepositional phrases. Example: The house at the corner is for sale. (adjectival prepositional phrase) Mary's little lamb ran to the house. (adverbial prepositional phrase) 14 2025 IT English Study Guide Definitions of Parts of Speech Interjection: a word that expresses some strong or sudden emotion. An interjection is often separated from the rest of the sentence by an exclamation point. A mild interjection is usually offset with a comma. Example: Wow! Oh! Example: Well, I see your point. Participle: a verbal form that functions as an adjective. Adding -ing to regular verbs makes present participles, and adding -d, -ed, -n, -en, or -t to regular verbs makes past participles. Example: The crying child calmed down. Gerund: a verbal form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. Example: Curling is a popular pastime in Canada. Appositives: a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause that describes or renames a noun that appears in the sentence immediately before the appositive. Appositives may be either essential or non-essential. The context surrounding the appositive helps to identify whether information is essential or non- essential. Appositives that provide essential information will NOT have commas around them. Appositives that provide non- essential information will have commas around them. Think of the commas as little scissors. You could snip out the appositive and the sentence would still impart all the information needed for a given situation. Examples: The Eagle Scout Tom McCarthy built the school's new shelves. (essential appositive phrase) The little lamb I saw, Mary's pet, had fleece as white as snow. (non-essential appositive phrase) 15 2025 IT English Study Guide Phrases, Clauses and Sentences Phrases: A phrase is a group of related words that function as a unit. A phrase does not contain a subject with a verb and does not convey a complete thought. Example: Mary's little lamb (noun phrase, no verb) prepositional phrase: a phrase that begins with a preposition and usually ends with a noun or noun equivalent. The noun or noun equivalent in the prepositional phrase is the direct object of the preposition. When a prepositional phrase acts as an adjective, it usually follows immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies. Example: The tour guide gave us directions to the museum. When a prepositional phrase acts as an adverb, it may modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Example: Jackson ran across the bridge. verbal phrases: a phrase beginning with a verb form that does not function as the verb of a clause. Verbal phrases may be classified as participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases, depending on the form of the verbal at the beginning of the phrase. participial phrase: a phrase that begins with a participle and includes its related words. Examples: Broken down, the bus sat on the edge of the highway. The government shall make a law extending the current deadline. gerund phrase: a phrase that uses the present participle (-ing) form of a verb as a noun. Example: Sunbathing in winter is a good way to catch a cold. infinitive phrase: a phrase that uses to plus the base form of a verb and its modifiers and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. Example: The protestors demanded the right to vote in the election. 16 2025 IT English Study Guide Phrases, Clauses and Sentences Clauses: A clause is a group of words that has a subject (noun or pronoun) and predicate (verb). An independent clause is a group of words that form a complete thought and can stand alone. Example: Camels live in the desert. A dependent clause, also known as a subordinate clause, is a group of words that do not form a complete thought or are dependent on an independent clause. Example: When Nicole opened the door, the cat ran out into the yard. (dependent clause) An adverb clause is a type of subordinate clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction such as after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, unless, when, whenever, and while. An adverb clause acts as an adverb, modifying the verb in a sentence. An adjective clause is a type of subordinate clause that modifies (gives more information regarding) nouns or pronouns. Adjective clauses begin with relative pronouns, such as that, which, who, whom, and whose and sometimes with the relative adverbs when, where, and why. A noun clause is a type of subordinate clause that acts like a single-word noun, usually as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a proposition. Noun clauses usually begin with the relative pronouns that, which, who, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, what, whatever, and whichever. When a dependent/subordinate clause follows the independent/main clause, NO comma separates the two clauses. However, when the dependent/subordinate clause introduces the independent/main clause, a comma separates the two clauses. Examples: Mary's lamb strayed away from the flock while Mary napped under the tree. (independent clause) (subordinate/adverb clause) While Mary napped under the tree, Mary’s lamb strayed away from the flock. (subordinate/adverb clause) (independent clause) 17 2025 IT English Study Guide Phrases, Clauses and Sentences Sentences: A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. A sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject names a person, place, or thing (noun, pronoun, noun phrase, or noun clause) about which a statement is made. The predicate tells something about the subject and includes a verb, verb phrase, or verb clause. Example: Jeremy (runs two miles every day). subject (predicate) If a phrase does not have a complete thought, it is a sentence fragment. Example: two miles a day (sentence fragment) Sentences may be classified according to their use in the following manner: A declarative sentence states a fact. An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence is a command. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong emotion. Different kinds of sentences end in different kinds of punctuation marks. Declarative and imperative sentences end with periods. Interrogative sentences end with question marks. Exclamatory sentences end with exclamation points. Sentences may also be classified as simple, compound, or complex. A simple sentence contains one subject and one predicate. A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses. A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Sentence Style: Here are some common mistakes that writers make regarding sentence structure and style: Consistent verb tenses: Avoid switching verb tenses within a sentence. Use the present tense when writing about literature. Example: Just as the boat departed from the pier, a passenger jumps into the water. Rewrite: Just as the boat departed from the pier, a passenger jumped into the water. Example: Winnie the Pooh was a character in A.A. Milne’s popular children’s book. Rewrite: Winnie the Pooh is a character in A.A. Milne’s popular children’s book. 18 2025 IT English Study Guide Phrases, Clauses and Sentences Parallelism: If two or more ideas are listed in a series, the form of the ideas should appear with the same grammatical form. Example: Jeremy loves skiing, sailing, and to go ice skating. Rewrite: Jeremy loves skiing, sailing, and ice skating. Example: Photographers practice focusing on a central figure, capturing the effects of light on the subject, and to eliminate unnecessary objects in the composition. Rewrite: Photographers practice focusing on a central figure, capturing the effects of light on the subject, and eliminating unnecessary objects in the composition. If elements are linked with coordinating, correlative, or subordinating conjunctions, the elements should have parallel grammatical form. Example: It is easier to hike over a mountain (than) moving it. Rewrite: It is easier to hike over a mountain (than) to move it. Split infinitives: an infinitive phrase that has modifiers between to and the base form of the verb. Sentences that contain a long word or phrase between the parts of the infinitive are usually awkward or unclear. Example: The students should try to if possible refrain from using split infinitives. Rewrite: If possible, the students should try to refrain from using split infinitives. Note: It is possible to have a split infinitive that functions well in a sentence. If the split infinitive makes a less awkward sentence, keep the split infinitive. 19 2025 IT English Study Guide Phrases, Clauses and Sentences Dangling modifiers: word groups that fail to refer logically to a word in a sentence. To eliminate dangling modifiers, determine the actor in the sentence. Then determine if any modifiers in the sentence refer logically to the actor. Example: Understanding the need to protect the basic rights of citizens, the Constitution created limits to governmental powers. Rewrite: Understanding the need to protect the basic rights of citizens, the framers of the Constitution created limits to governmental powers. (The writers of the Constitution, not the document itself, understood the need for limited government powers.) Example: To satisfy her music teacher, the violin had to be practiced every day. (unclear sentence; who had to practice violin?) Rewrite: To satisfy her music teacher, Samantha had to practice playing her violin every day. 20 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation Rules of Capitalization: Use a capital letter for: 1. The first word in a sentence 2. The first word of a direct quotation Exception: Do not capitalize the first word in the second part of a split quotation. Example: “When it begins to rain,” Jackie said, “open your umbrella.” 3. Names of specific people and common nouns used as a substitute for the names of specific people. Example: Mother, please pass the peas. My mother refused to pass the peas. Jeremy wanted the peas. The boy wanted the peas. 4. Days of the week, months, and holidays Exception: The seasons (fall, winter, spring, and summer) are not capitalized. 5. Ranks and titles, when used before a person’s name or as a person’s name, but usually not when used alone Examples: President Obama is capitalized, but the president is not. By noon, Colonel, the troops will be ready. The district attorney decided to press charges against Mr. Truman. 6. Geographic areas, regions of the United States, cities, streets, countries, counties, and parks Exceptions: Directions (north, south, east, and west) are not capitalized. Example: A hurricane hit the South, then headed northeast into the Atlantic Ocean. 7. Historical movements and periods, government departments, and historical documents Example: The Great Depression, the Middle Ages, the Republican Party, Declaration of Independence 8. Religions, nationalities, and races of people 9. Languages, countries, and adjectives derived from the names of countries 21 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation 10. The names of God and sacred books Exceptions: References to a non-specific god or goddess 11. Titles of specific schools, specific school courses, and language courses, but not general subjects 12. Names of specific businesses, and brand names 13. Names of planets Exceptions: We do not capitalize “sun” or “moon” and sometimes not “earth.” As stated in the MLA Style Center website, Earth is usually capitalized “when the does not precede the name of the planet, when earth is not part of an idiomatic expression, or when other planets are mentioned.” Examples: The earth revolves around the sun. The astronauts landed on the moon. The space shuttle will return to Earth next year. The four planets closest to the sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—compose the inner solar system. 14. Names of specific teams, clubs, organizations, and political parties 15. Titles of movies, books, chapters, and magazine articles Exceptions: Do not capitalize short articles (a, an, or the), conjunctions, and prepositions, unless the word is the first word of a title. 16. The abbreviations AD, BC, AM, and PM 17. The pronoun “I” 18. The first word after a colon if it begins an independent clause. However, this is a stylistic choice and is not necessary. Example: The class voted on the different options for the annual field trip: A high percentage of the students voted for a trip to the zoo. 19. Each of two-letter postal abbreviations for names of states Example: California = CA 22 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation The Period: 1. Use a period at the end of a declarative or an imperative sentence. 2. Use a period after an abbreviation or an initial. Exception: When all the letters in an abbreviation are capitalized, the periods can be omitted. However, there is no strict rule that governs whether you should put periods after each letter in an acronym. Examples: Pres. Harry S. Truman FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) or F.B.I. 3. Keep periods inside quotation marks. Examples: Alex said, “I will help.” 4. In a statement that includes an indirect question, use a period instead of a question mark at the end of a sentence. Example: Kristen asked if she could attend the party. 5. If a polite request is written in the form of a question, a period may be used at the end of the sentence. Example: Would you please answer the telephone. The Question Mark: 1. Use a question mark to end a direct question or interrogative sentence. 2. If a quotation is a question, put the question mark within the quotation marks. Example: “Do you want to go to the movies?” asked Jeremy. 3. If the quotation is not a question, put the question mark outside the quotation marks. Example: Who said, “Four score and seven years ago”? 4. After a question mark, either in the middle of a sentence or end of a question, do not use a period or comma. Examples: “Do you want to go to the movies?” asked Jeremy. 23 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation The Exclamation Point: 1. Use an exclamation point following an interjection, exclamatory sentence, and other expressions of strong feeling. Examples: Wow! I didn’t expect that to happen. Don’t do that! 2. After an exclamation point within a sentence, omit a comma or period. Example: “I love you!” shouted Kristen. Quotation Marks: 1. Use quotation marks at the beginning and end of a direct quotation. Example: Jeremy asked, “What are you doing?” 2. Use quotation marks to show material cited from written sources. Use the exact words from the material. Example: In The Call of the Wild, Jack London wrote, “Mercy was a thing reserved for gentler climes.” 3. Use single quotation marks when including a quotation within a quotation. Example: Sammy said, “My father always says, ‘Any plan is better than no plan.’” 4. Use quotation marks when referring to a particular word. Example: We use the term “shy” for a person who is quiet and reserved. 5. Use quotation marks when using a nickname written as part of a formal name. Example: Tony “The Tiger” Lopez 6. Indirect quotations are not word-for-word and do not need quotation marks. Examples: My mother told me to stay inside after school. The coach said we need to eat well and get plenty of rest. 7. Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of short stories, essays, episodes of radio and television programs, songs, and short poems. Example: My favorite song is “Yankee Doodle Dandy.” 24 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation The Comma: 1. Use a comma to separate words in a list. Example: Peter, Matthew, and Andrew were apostles. 2. Use a comma to set off a short direct quotation and the parts of a divided quotation, unless a question mark or exclamation point are used. (Note the position of the commas in these examples.) Examples: “I am going to the store,” said Mrs. Winter, “after I go to the gym.” “Have you read the newspaper today?” asked Thomas. (no commas) Mrs. Winter said, “I am going to the grocery store.” 3. Use a comma to set off dates, addresses, or geographical names. If a date appears in the middle of a sentence, a common should also follow the year. Examples: Today is November 7, 2014. Samantha lives at 123 South Street, Sacramento, California. 4. Use a comma to separate a non-essential phrase or clause, one that may be omitted from a sentence without changing its meaning. Example: Samantha, who grew up in California, moved to Chicago after graduation. 5. Use a comma to separate the clauses of a compound sentence. Example: Chris lives in Chicago, but he works in Darian. 6. Use a comma to set off an introductory word, introductory phrase, or dependent clause. Introductory words include yes, no, indeed, well, in addition, thus, and moreover. Examples: When you finish your chores, we will go to the mall. Yes, I agree with your argument. 8. Use a comma after words of direct address at the beginning of a sentence. Example: Mark, get in the car. 9. Use a comma after the salutation and after the complimentary close in a social letter. Example: Dear Kate, Best regards, 10. Do not use a comma after an exclamation point or question mark. 25 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation Colon: 1. Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list. Examples: The campers packed necessary items: a tent, matches, sleeping bags, and a canteen. 2. Use a colon to introduce a long quotation. An independent clause must precede the colon. Capitalize the beginning of the quotation after the colon. Example: Dr. Peabody gave me this advice: “If you are going to lose weight, you must follow a diet full of fruits and vegetables, exercise regularly, and reduce your caloric intake. Doing just one of these is not enough. A healthy lifestyle requires practice and consistency to work.” 3. Use a colon between two independent clauses when the second clause restates the first clause. (Note that the restatement does not require a beginning capital.) Example: This coat is my favorite: it is warm, waterproof, and stylish. 4. Use a colon after the salutation in a business letter. Example: Dear Sirs: 5. Do not use a colon immediately after a verb or preposition. Examples: (Incorrect) The cookie choices are: chocolate chip, peanut butter, and oatmeal. (Correct) The cookie choices are chocolate chip, peanut butter, and oatmeal. (Incorrect) We have plenty of: candles, matches, and firewood. (Correct) We have plenty of candles, matches, and firewood. 26 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation Semicolon: 1. Use a semicolon to connect two closely related independent clauses. Example: We expected to win the competition; our team was well prepared. 2. Use a semicolon to separate clauses that already have commas within them. Example: The winners were Tabitha from San Ramon, California; Eric from Helena, Montana; Monica from Boise, Idaho; and Martin from Reno, Nevada. 3. Use a semicolon when a conjunctive adverb is used in combining two independent clauses. Note, once combining occurs, what follows the semicolon becomes a dependent clause. Example: Tabitha was the grand prize winner; however, she did not claim the prize. 27 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation Apostrophe: 1. Use an apostrophe to indicate ownership. For a singular word, add an apostrophe and an s. Example: Emily’s teddy bear For a singular word ending in s, add an apostrophe or an apostrophe and an s. Either form is correct. Example: King James’ or King James’s reign Exception: If the s makes an “iz” sound or is an ancient name, only add an apostrophe. Example: Moses’, Jesus’, Zeus’ For a plural word that ends in s, add an apostrophe. Example: soldiers’ armaments For a plural word that does not end in s, add an apostrophe and s. Example: children’s theater For abbreviations, add an apostrophe and s. Example: The CIA’s headquarters In compound nouns, add the apostrophe and s to the end of the word. Example: sister-in-law’s If two or more nouns are used together, but each person possesses something independently of each other, use an apostrophe and s at the end of each noun. Example: Samantha’s and Kristen’s purses are in the closet. If two or more nouns are used together to indicate shared possession, use an apostrophe and an s after the last noun in the list. Example: Samantha and Kristen’s house is around the corner. 28 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation 2. Use an apostrophe when letters are omitted from a word. Examples: Word Contraction Word Contraction never ne’er over o’er of the clock o’clock madam ma’am 3. Use an apostrophe to form a contraction, such as don’t (for do not). Phrase: Contraction: Phrase: Contraction: it is it’s how is how’s I am I’m how did how’d I have I’ve cannot can’t I will I’ll could not couldn’t I had/would I’d do not don’t we are we’re does not doesn’t we have we’ve did not didn’t we will we’ll has not hasn’t we had/would we’d had not hadn’t he is he’s have not haven’t he had/would he’d that is that’s he will he’ll when is when’s she is she’s where did where’d she had/would she’d what is what’s she will she’ll what did what’d you are you’re what will what’ll you have you’ve who is who’s you had/would you’d who did/would who’d you will you’ll who will who’ll they are they’re was not wasn’t they have they’ve were not weren’t they had/would they’d will not won’t they will they’ll would not wouldn’t is not isn’t that is that’s are not aren’t that had/would that’d let us let’s how will how’ll who are who’re where is where’s 4. Do not use an apostrophe if you are writing about plural years. Example: the 1500s 29 2025 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation Hyphen: 1. Use a hyphen when spelling out fractions as adjectives or adverbs, not as nouns. Examples: She will save one third of the snacks for the trip home. The bill requires a two-thirds majority to pass. 2. Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine. Example: The stereo cost one hundred thirty-two dollars. 3. Use a hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex- (when used to indicate “former”), and self-. Examples: Jeremy was named to the all-star football team. Sarah is Samantha’s ex-roommate. Tiffany bought a self-help book at the garage sale. 4. Use a hyphen with the suffix -elect. Example: The president-elect has no power to veto laws. 5. Use a hyphen in certain words to avoid ambiguity. Example: The re-creation of the scene of the Last Supper was the highlight of the play. Jeremy’s favorite form of recreation is fishing. 6. Use a hyphen with two or more words used together as an adjective before a noun. Examples: Jeremy bought a third-class ticket for the train to Barcelona. A well-known author will be the keynote speaker at the conference. Exception: In general, do not use a hyphen if the words used together as an adjective follow a noun. Example: His first book is not well known. 30 2024 IT English Study Guide Capitalization and Punctuation Italics: 1. Italicize the title of the following types of works: Titles of books, magazines, and newspapers Titles of plays and films Titles of television and radio programs Titles of musicals, musical compositions, and choreographed works Titles of paintings, sculptures, and visual art. 2. Italicize electronic works, such as the titles of websites, electronic databases, and electronic games. Example: Google, Bing, Minecraft 3. Italicize the proper names of spacecraft, ships, and aircraft. Note: If the name has a prefix, such as USS or HMS, do not italicize the prefix. Whether or not to punctuate the prefix with periods is a matter of style, but should remain consistent within a paper. Example: USS Enterprise, H.M.S. Indefatigable, Enola Gay 4. Italicize foreign words. Do not italicize foreign words that have become standard parts of the English language. Example: joie de vivre, burrito 5. Italicize or use quotation marks to indicate words mentioned as words. Example: The word ethos originates from the Greek language. The word “ethos” originates from the Greek language. 31 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling Spelling The English language is a blend of words from different languages. Most English words originate from Latin, Greek, and German roots. English evolved over many centuries, adopting different words along the way. Even today, new words are adopted into Standard English usage. For instance, the word “internet” did not even exist forty years ago. It is now part of Standard English usage. Because of the adoption of new words and different language origins, there are few rules of spelling for the English language that do not have exceptions. Given that so many rules have exceptions, how do you improve your spelling? First, make a list of vocabulary words every time you read a book. Listing new words will help you learn to spell and understand their meanings. Second, learn Latin, Greek, and German root words. Often, the root of a word will give a hint of its correct spelling. Third, use the following list of spelling rules that apply in most cases and learn the exceptions to these rules. Here are some things you need to know before learning the rules of spelling: The letters “a”, “e”, “i”, “o”, “u”, and sometimes “y” are vowels. All other letters are consonants. Short vowels have the following sounds: ă as in bat, ĕ as in bed, ĭ as in hit, ŏ as in fox, ŭ as in run. Long vowels have the following sounds: ā as in lake, ē as in feet, ī as in kite, ō as in boat, ū as in unicorn. A suffix is a group of letters added to the ending of a root word to change or modify its function or part of speech. A prefix is a group of letters added to the beginning of a root word to change or modify its meaning. 32 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling Spelling rules for English words (with very few exceptions): In general, “i” comes before “e” except after the letter “c.” Examples: receive, conceive, retrieve, belief However, the “e” comes before “i” in the following instances: o when the “e” and “i” sound like “ay,” as in neighbor and weigh o if “c” is part of a “sh” sound, as in glacier o if the “e” and “i” sound like ī as in height o in compound words, such as albeit o other exceptions, such as seize, caffeine, science, weird, forfeit The letter “q” is always followed by the letter “u”. Examples: quite, quiet, queue When adding the suffix “-ing” to words ending in “y”, keep the “y”. Examples: try trying rally rallying When a word ends with a consonant and a “y”, change the “y” to an “i” before adding a suffix other than “-ing”. Examples: happy happiest happiness merry merrier merriment When a word ends with a vowel and a “y”, keep the “y” when adding a suffix. Examples: play played playing enjoy enjoyed enjoying pay paying payment Exceptions: pay paid say said lay laid If a word ends in a short vowel and a consonant, double the last consonant when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel. Example: bed bedding 33 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling Usually, when a two-syllable word ends in a vowel and a consonant, double the last consonant when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel. Examples: admit admitting admittance refer referred referring occur occurring occurrence Exceptions: Spelling varies for words ending in the letter “l”, such as: travel traveling traveled cancel canceling canceled cancelation pencil penciling penciled Also, some irregular words, such as: benefit benefiting benefited If a word ends with two vowels followed by a consonant, do not double the last consonant when adding a suffix. Examples: sleep sleeping doom doomed If a word ends in a vowel followed by two consonants, do not double the last consonant when adding a suffix. Examples: sing singer sigh sighing When a word ends in a silent “e”, drop the “e” when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. Examples: have having operate operating argue arguing To form the plural of a word that ends in a consonant followed by a “y”, change the “y” to “i” and add “es”. Examples: enemy enemies try tried To form the plural of a word that ends in a vowel followed by a “y”, add the letter “s”. Examples: monkey monkeys galley galleys toy toys 34 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling To form the plural for words ending in “s”, “x”, “ch”, or “sh”, add “es”. Examples: church churches miss misses hex hexes To form the plural of a word ending in “f” or “f” followed by a silent “e”, change the “f” to a “v” and add “es” Examples wife wives : leaf leaves hoof hooves Exceptions: If using “ves” as a suffix changes the root word from a noun to a verb, add “s” only and do not change the “f”. belief beliefs To form the plural of a word ending in a consonant followed by an “o”, add “es”. Examples: tomato tomatoes potato potatoes Exceptions: words related to music, such as “pianos,” “concertos,” “sopranos” some words from Spanish or Italian origins, such as “avocados” To form the plural of a word ending in two vowels, add “s”. Examples: folio folios taboo taboos To form the plural of Latin and Greek root words that end in “um” or “on”, drop the “um” or “on” and add “a”. Examples: addendum addenda To form the plural of Latin roots ending in “is”, change the “is” to “es”. Examples: basis bases oasis oases crisis crises To form the plural of Latin roots ending in "us", drop the "us" and add "i". Examples: alumnus alumni fungus fungi 35 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling For compound words without hyphens, use the full spelling of each word that makes up the compound word. Examples: cupcakes, firefly, bookmark To form the plural of compound words that are separated by hyphens, add “s” to the first word of the compound word. Examples: mother-in-law mothers-in-law To form the plural of a compound word ending in “ful”, add “s” at the end of the word. Examples: cupful cupfuls Adding a prefix to the beginning of a root word does not require any changes. Examples: pre + eminent preeminent dis + satisfy dissatisfy There are a lot of words that have irregular plural forms. The best way to learn the spelling for these words is to memorize them. Examples: child/children ox/oxen foot/feet woman/women man/men mouse/mice There are also words that are the same for the singular and plural forms. Examples: deer fish moose If a word ends in a vowel followed by the consonant "c", add "k" at the end of the word before adding a suffix. Examples: shellac shellacked traffic trafficking When adding the suffix "-tion" to a root word ending in "-ceive", drop the "-ive" from the end of the word and add "-ption" in its place. Examples: receive reception 36 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling In most instances, use the suffix "–able" when adding to a root that can stand alone as a whole word. Use the suffix "–ible" when adding to a root that cannot stand alone as a word. Examples: depend dependable aud (not a word) audible If the base word ends in a silent e, preceded by a soft c (that sounds like s) or soft g (that sounds like j), keep the e and add –able. Examples: notice noticeable manage manageable If the base word does not have a soft c or g, drop the e and add –able or -ible. Examples: adore adorable love lovable collapse collapsible 37 2025 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Roots of Words Roots of Words An internet search will reveal to you that there are hundreds of roots that form the basis of many of our English words. Their histories reveal connections to old European languages such as Middle English, German, Latin, and Greek. The following are some examples. Root Meaning Examples aer, aero air aerate, aerial, aerosol ampli large quantity amplifier, amplitude, ample aqua water aquarium, aqueous, aquamarine aug grow, increase augment, auger auto self automatic, automotive bar weight, pressure barometer beat bless beatification bene good benediction, beneficial, benefit calli beautiful calligraphy cata downwards, lower catacomb, catalytic, cataclysm circum around circumference, circumnavigate celer swift accelerate cycl circular cyclone, cyclical equ equal equanimity, equate, equivocate fid faith, trust, belief in confidence, fidelity geo earth, soil, global geography, geology, geoponics glob sphere global, globule gyro ring, circle, spiral gyroscope, gyrocompass hydr water hydrate, hydraulics, hydrous, hydrant, hydrogen insul island insulate iso equal, the same isosceles, isometric kine movement, motion kinetic energy, kinesthetic labor to work laborious, laboratory lamin layer, slice laminate 38 2025 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Roots of Words Root Meaning Examples lat broad, wide latitude oper to work operation, cooperate ped, pod foot impediment, pedestrian, tripod plac please placid, placebo, placate, complacent port carry transport, import, export, portable quer, quir, search, seek inquire, query, inquest, question, quesit, quisit inquisitive rect straight, direct correct, direct, rectify spec see spectacle, specimen, speculate stru, struct build constructive, construe term end terminate, terminal terr-, terra land terrain, territory thermo heat thermometer, thermos und wave undulate, inundate vac empty vacant, vacuum 39 2025 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Prefixes and Suffixes Prefixes and Suffixes In English, prefixes and suffixes change the root of a word in different ways. In general, a prefix changes the meaning of the word, while a suffix changes the function of a word. For example, inflect and reflect are two different verbs from the root -flect. Adding the suffix - ion to the verbs inflect and reflect changes the verbs into the nouns inflection and reflection. Prefixes A prefix is a syllable or syllables added to the beginning of a root word. Here is a list of common prefixes and their meanings. Prefix Meaning Examples anti-, anta- against antifreeze, antidote, antagonist bi- two bicycle, binoculars co-, com-, con-, jointly, together cooperation, coordination, conjunction, col- community, collateral de- opposite of defrost, decompose dis - opposite of disagree, disavow en-, em- cause to; in/to, on enrich, empower, encode, embed, endemic, emphasis ex- not including; without exterminate, exclude, except in- including, in, on; within; not inject, inscribe, indescribable, inadequate inter- between interact, intercontinental micro - small microscope, microphone mis- wrongly misfire, misspell, misconception non- not nonsense para - side by side; resembling; beyond paragraph, paraphrase, parameter peri- around; surrounding; near perimeter, periscope pre- before predetermine, preconceive, predate re- again return, reaction, refraction sub- under submarine, subterranean super- above, greater supersonic, superstructure syn- together synchronize, synthesize, synonym trans- across transport, transplant, transact ultra- beyond; greater than ultraviolet, ultrasound, ultramarine uni- one universal 40 2025 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Prefixes and Suffixes Suffixes A suffix is a syllable or syllables added to the end of a root word. Here is a list of common suffixes and their meanings. Suffix Meaning Examples -able, -ible can be done comfortable -acious, -icious full of audacious, avaricious -al, -ial having characteristics of personal -ation that which is irritation, exasperation -en made of wooden -er, -or one who worker, actor -fy to make electrify, beatify -ic having characteristics of demonic -ion action or process distortion, completion -ive relating to, of, like; of or that quantitative, expensive, which does something excessive, introspective -ition, -tion the action of or state of intuition, institution -ity, -ty state of infinity -less without fearless -ness state of, condition of kindness -ous full of nauseous -tude state of fortitude, beatitude 41 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Commonly Misspelled Words List of Commonly Misspelled Words absurd asterisk controversy familiar accessible audacity controversial fascinate accommodate auger cylinder fiasco accompany ballast definitely fluorescent accustomed belief definition fortuitous achievement believe descent freight acknowledgment beneficial describe genre acquire benefited description gimbal aerate brusque devious gyroscope aerosol buoyant differential herb aesthetic calendar diffraction heresy aggregate catacomb dilemma hybrid alias category disastrous hydraulic alibi cessation discipline hymn allot chasm eccentric hyphenate all right chimney ecstatic illiterate ambidextrous coalesce embarrass immune ambiguous collaborate environment implement analysis column equivalent incarcerate ancillary coming equivocate innocuous antecedent comparative eschew intellectual antenna condense exaggerate kinetic apparent condescension existence knowledge argument conferred existent laborious arguing conscience experience legitimate artificial conscious explain liaison 42 2024 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Commonly Misspelled Words List of Commonly Misspelled Words lose performance quiet synonym losing perpetrate ratchet technical maneuver perseverance receive technique marriage personal query territory mechanism personnel reciprocal thieves mediocre phenomena recommend thorough mere physical referring transferred misspell picturesque repetition trolley moderate plier rescind trough monotonous possession reservoir tumult mosquito possible resistance turbine myriad precede rhythm tyranny nauseous prejudice seize verdant necessary prepare separation villain nutrient prevalent serration waive occasion privilege similar wheeze occurred probably siphon whether occurring proceed soliloquy whimsical occurrence procedure spontaneity women opinion process squalid write opportunity professor studying wrought oscillate profession submersible yacht paid prominent succeed zephyr parallel psychology succession particular pulley succinct pendulum pursue synchronize 43 2025 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Homophones Homophones Homophones are words that sound alike, but are (1) spelled differently and (2) have different meanings. Homophones cause a lot of spelling problems. Knowing the definition of each homophone is necessary to determine the correct word choice. In some instances, the paired homophones listed below might have third or fourth homophones that are not listed here. The definitions given are concise, will help you recognize the differences in the pairs, and will give you a working knowledge of the words. Because the definitions are not necessarily comprehensive, you should refer to a dictionary when you plan to use these words formally, such as in written work or in a speech. Homophone Part of speech Definition accept verb to agree to; to receive something offered except preposition not including; to disallow to join something to something else to increase; adds verb to find a sum of a series of numbers ads noun advertisements adze noun a tool similar to an axe with a curved blade adverse adjective unfavorable averse adjective opposed; reluctant gases that make up the atmosphere/to express or air noun/verb share publicly ayre noun a ridge of sand or gravel formed by the sea ere preposition before err verb to make a mistake a person legally entitled to a person’s property or heir noun title upon that person’s death affect verb to influence or to change effect noun a result all ready adjective phrase all prepared already adverb previously 44 2025 IT English Study Guide Spelling: Homophones Homophone Part of speech Definition axel noun a type of jump in figure skating axle noun a rod that passes through the center of a wheel brake noun a mechanism for slowing down or stopping break verb to shatter or come apart a city that is the seat of government of a region or capital noun country capitol noun a building housing a legislative body complement noun something that completes or makes whole compliment noun a word of praise conscience noun moral principles conscious adjective aware; alert; awake coarse adjective lacking in fineness or delicacy of texture; vulgar a direction or route; a mode of conduct; prescribed course noun/verb instructions to run through; to run or move swiftly cores noun (plural) the central or most important parts of something a body of people engaged in a particular activity; a branch corps noun of a military organization an assembly of persons called together to consult; council noun administrators counsel verb to advise; to consult a person, animal, or plant that comes from a certain descendant noun line of ancestors descendent adjective moving downward; descending fair verb/noun just or appropriate for the circumstances fare noun a fee paid for public transportation; range of food to let loose; to release from captivity or