NotebookLM Quiz 3 Notes PDF

QUIZ 3? NOTES THE ACADEMY Early Institutions: Church and Guilds Before formal art academies, other institutions played a role in the development and teaching of art. ​ The Roman Catholic Church ○​ The Church used art primarily as a tool for religious instruction. ○​ They...

QUIZ 3? NOTES THE ACADEMY Early Institutions: Church and Guilds Before formal art academies, other institutions played a role in the development and teaching of art. ​ The Roman Catholic Church ○​ The Church used art primarily as a tool for religious instruction. ○​ They believed images "illuminated" the sacred text, especially for those who couldn't read. ○​ Pope Gregory the Great emphasized that pictures were visual texts, not idols to be worshipped. ○​ He saw pictures as easy-to-read manuals, particularly useful in the Middle Ages when literacy was low. ○​ However, this view overlooks the artistic elements of delight and beauty that are inherent in art. ○​ It also assumes a pre-existing understanding of Christian narratives and imagery, potentially reducing pictures to mnemonic devices. ​ Medieval Craft Guilds ○​ Guilds emerged around the 12th century as fraternal organizations focused on the practical aspects of art - making, building, and selling. ○​ They provided a strong sense of community and cooperation, unlike the modern concept of the independent artist. ○​ Training followed a pattern of apprenticeship (around 7 years) followed by becoming a journeyman (day laborer) and eventually a master with assistants. ○​ The guild system's emphasis on practicality raises questions for modern art historians regarding originality and authenticity. ○​ While a master's work commanded a higher price, originality wasn't as central as it is today. ○​ This difference in perspective highlights the shift in the value placed on an artist's individual hand over time. Cennino Cennini's "Il Libro dell’Arte" (The Craftsman's Handbook) ​ Cennini's book, completed in 1437, offers insights into the artist's self-conception and artistic practices of the late Middle Ages. ​ He positions the artist below God and the saints, connected through reverence and subservience. ​ He acknowledges the inheritance of artistic knowledge from masters like Giotto. ​ Cennini sees painting as part of the "wages" of sin, stemming from Adam and Eve's fall from grace. ​ However, he also finds redemption in this work, as art sits "next to theory" and grants the artist the freedom to create and reveal the unseen. ​ The book primarily focuses on manual labor and technical aspects, outlining various steps involved in the artistic process. ​ Cennini's text marks the beginning of the Renaissance, where the artist's individual creativity and potential for creating something new are emphasized. The Renaissance Academy ​ The concept of the academy as a place of learning was revived in 15th century Florence, fueled by the reintroduction of Plato's writings. ​ Lorenzo de' Medici supported the founding of an academy where intellectuals discussed Greek philosophy. ​ However, academies specifically for artists emerged in the 16th century, driven by changes in the social and intellectual status of artists. ​ Leonardo da Vinci played a crucial role in shaping the academic tradition. ​ He distinguished between the mechanical crafts and the intellectual work of the artist. ​ This distinction elevated the artist's status by emphasizing their mental faculty. ​ Leonardo proposed a "core" curriculum for artistic training: perspective, proportion, drawing from nature and from the teacher's work. ​ The Accademia del Disegno ○​ The first formal art academy, established in Florence by Vasari and Cosimo I.  ○​ Aimed to unite artists around the idea of "disegno", encompassing design, drawing, and creativity. ○​ Vasari sought to liberate artists from the constraints of the medieval guild system. ​ The Accademia di San Luca in Rome (late 16th century) ○​ Shared similar goals with the Florentine academy: elevating the artist's social standing and providing intellectual training. ○​ Interestingly, it admitted non-artists, noblemen, and art lovers, possibly similar to modern art history students. The French Academy ​ The Academie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture ○​ Founded in 1648 by Jean-Baptiste Colbert under King Louis XIV's reign. ○​ Reflects Louis XIV's ambition to control culture, seeking art that would glorify his image as the grand monarch. ​ Key Elements of the Academie 1.​ Emphasis on Convention: ​ Artists were encouraged to follow established styles and examples rather than seeking originality. ​ The focus was on "the best rules, the best masters" like Raphael and Poussin. ​ This adherence to convention aimed for a clear, direct, and symmetrical style, leading to French Classicism. 2.​ Hierarchy of Genres: ​ Felibien's hierarchy (1667) ranked painting types based on subject matter. ​ Still lifes (natures mortes) occupied the lowest rung. ​ Landscapes and animal paintings ranked higher. ​ Human figure paintings were further divided into low-life scenes, portraits, historical scenes, and finally, at the top, religious scenes depicting the Sacraments.  ​ This hierarchy demonstrates the influence of the academy in establishing a value system, often with political implications. 3.​ The Ideal and Nature: ​ The academy promoted the concept of an ideal realm of perfection that transcended the messy reality of the world. ​ Artists were tasked with "fixing" the world and restoring the ideal through their work. ​ This involved imposing artistic method onto nature (nature mise en methode), elevating the artist to a godlike status. 4.​ Expression of the Passions: ​ Charles Le Brun's lectures and drawings emphasized the depiction of emotions through facial expressions and gestures. ​ He systematized emotions into distinct categories, reflecting the rationalizing tendencies of the time. ​ This focus on psychology and emotional expression in art has influenced visual culture, particularly in areas like television acting. ​ The "Ancients" vs. "Moderns" Debate: ​ A late 17th-century debate within the Academie centered on the source of artistic authority. ​ "Ancients" believed in adhering to the classical ideal established in antiquity. ​ They prioritized "line" (disegno) as the essence of art, reflecting the artist's intellect. ​ "Moderns" argued that contemporary artists could contribute new insights and that "color" held more immediate visual power. ​ The debate ultimately reflects the struggle for artistic autonomy and breaking free from imposed authority. ​ The Salon and the Emergence of a Public: ​ Starting in 1737, the Academie's regular Salons (public exhibitions) marked the beginning of the modern art exhibition. ​ These Salons attracted a diverse public, contributing to the rise of art criticism and a wider market for art. Later Academies and the Shift to Universities ​ The French Academie was eventually reconstituted as the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in the 19th century. ​ Other prominent academies emerged, including the Royal Academy in London, the National Academy of Design in New York, and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (the oldest continuous academy in the US). ​ Early American education did not prioritize art instruction, focusing instead on literacy, religion, and law. ​ However, figures like Benjamin Franklin advocated for including drawing in the curriculum. ​ The 19th century saw the rise of art academies in the US, often accompanied by internal disputes regarding access to resources and training. ​ The Movement to the University ​ Art history as a discipline emerged in late 18th century Germany, driven by interest in archaeology and antiquities. ​ Johan Winckelmann's Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums (1764) is considered a foundational text. ​ Full professorships in art history were established, with Franz Kugler at the Berlin Academy of Art considered the first art historian professor (1833). ​ Jakob Burckhardt, a student during this period, is seen as a pivotal figure in the development of modern art history. ​ German universities led in art history until the 1930s, while the practical training remained in academies. ​ In the English-speaking world, Oxford, Cambridge, and University College, London introduced university art courses in the late 19th century, with John Ruskin holding the first Slade Professorship at Oxford. ​ American universities followed suit, with Charles Eliot Norton playing a key role at Harvard. ​ Norton emphasized the civilizing influence of art, drawing inspiration from Ruskin's ideas. ​ He introduced art history lectures and studio training at Harvard, focusing on the canonical works of ancient Greece, medieval Venice, and the Italian Renaissance.  ​ Yale and Syracuse established art schools, while Princeton sought to distinguish art history as a separate discipline. ​ Early American art history emphasized factual knowledge over "appreciation", possibly reflecting a distrust of the subjective or intangible aspects of art. ​ By the early 20th century, art history courses became more common in American universities, primarily as introductory surveys and thematic courses. The Influence of German Art Historians ​ The influx of German-Jewish art historians fleeing Nazi persecution in the 1930s significantly shaped American art history. ​ They brought with them a strong theoretical and interdisciplinary approach, contrasting with the American focus on factual objectivity. ​ Erwin Panofsky, a prominent figure in this migration, described the encounter as a clash between "Anglo-Saxon positivism" and German theoretical depth. ​ He noted the need to adapt German terminology to be understood in English, leading to a blending of philosophical and practical perspectives. ​ This influx intellectualized American art history, introducing perspectives from Marxism, psychoanalysis, and other disciplines. Art History in the Mid-20th Century ​ By the mid-20th century, art history was firmly established in American academia, seen as integral to the liberal arts. ​ However, its purpose within the curriculum remained somewhat unclear. ​ James Ackerman, in 1958, noted the flourishing state of art history but expressed concern about its direction. ​ He criticized the prevalence of chronological surveys, arguing that they prioritized training future art historians rather than engaging a wider audience. ​ Ackerman also pointed out the lack of theoretical awareness in American art history, despite the influence of German scholars. ​ A 1960s report by the College Art Association acknowledged the "cautious tone and conservative temper" of American art history, attributing it to the academic environment's emphasis on soundness over originality. ​ The report suggests that the university system's focus on conformity and minimizing eccentricity may have hindered theoretical exploration. The Evolving Methods of Teaching Art History ​ E. H. Gombrich described Heinrich Wolfflin's innovative lectures in 1930s Berlin, where he used dual slide projections to compare and contrast artworks.  ​ The development of slide projectors revolutionized art history teaching, allowing for visual comparisons across time and location. ​ However, Gombrich cautioned against potential oversimplifications and false analogies that this method could create. ​ Despite this, the comparative method has remained dominant in American art history classrooms. ​ A typical art history lecture in recent decades involves chronological surveys of art periods, focusing on stylistic changes, individual artists, and the relationship between form and content. ​ Students are often expected to memorize names, titles, dates, and demonstrate understanding of historical, stylistic, and iconographic elements. Conclusion: The Academy as a Site of Learning ​ The academy, whether a physical building or a broader intellectual tradition, provides the framework for learning and instruction in art. ​ Its origins lie in the idea of a garden, a space separate from the everyday world, similar to a university campus. ​ Academies have evolved from their early forms in the Church and guilds to become institutions that foster both practical skills and intellectual development. ​ The French Academy played a particularly significant role in shaping artistic conventions, hierarchies, and the relationship between art and the state. ​ The shift of art training to universities in the 20th century has further transformed the academy, leading to the professionalization of art history and the incorporation of critical theory. ​ Despite its established position, art history continues to grapple with questions of purpose and direction, seeking to balance the demands of academic rigor with the need to engage a broader public.