Methods Of Philosophizing PDF

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING The chapter containing lessons, namely: Lesson 1 – Distinguish opinion from truth. Lesson 2 – Realizing methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth. Lesson 3 – Evaluating truth from opinions using the methods of...

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING The chapter containing lessons, namely: Lesson 1 – Distinguish opinion from truth. Lesson 2 – Realizing methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth. Lesson 3 – Evaluating truth from opinions using the methods of philosophizing. After going through this module, you are expected to: 1. define the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge; 2. distinguish opinion from truth; 3. analyze situations that show the difference between opinion and truth; 4. realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth; and 5. evaluate opinions. Truth Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. It is a fact that has been verified. (Abella 2016) Knowledge According to Abella (2016), it is important to clarify knowledge before we discuss truth, since it through knowing that we are able to determine what is true. He further discusses Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something. Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or truthful are considered facts. However, there are statements that are not evidently or immediately known to be true. This statement is claim, a further examination is required to establish whether it is true or false. Philosophy has various views which can help us tackle the concepts of knowing the truth, and arrive at a reasonable assessment if a statement, idea, or event is believable. Why is truth important? Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts. It is through knowing that we are able to determine what is true. I know that… I know why… I know how… These statements correspond to what is based on reality. This simply means that we know what is observable or evident in the real world. For example, “I know that fishes live in water” because fishes do live in water. Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or truthful are considered facts. There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to be true. For example, “I know that my school is the best school in the city”. This statement cannot be taken as true since it is simply not immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and further examination is required to establish whether it is true or false. Therefore, truthful statements can be considered as based on facts. 3 Perspectives regarding truth: According to Abella (2016), there are several views regarding truth. But what kind of belief is truthful? How do we know that what we believe is true? He further explained, that everything we know about this world is true. But philosophers who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that there is to know about themselves and the world. It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so that we may learn anew. Let’s embark on our own investigation on the nature of knowledge. 1. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses. I am alive. I have a body. I can breathe. In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to help determine truth.  Using doubt as our starting point, let’s rewrite the statements as questions so we can review and examine them further. Am I alive? Do I have a body? Can I breathe? Now, how will you figure out the answers to these questions? The obvious answer would be to examine yourself to determine if indeed you are alive, that you have a body, and you can breathe. Do you have a pulse? Can you feel your heartbeat? Do you have hands, arms, legs, feet, and a head? Try to take a deep breathe, then exhale. Were you able to do it? If you answered “yes” to all these questions, then you can conclude with certainty that the previous statements about yourself are true. You can now say: I am alive! I have a body! I can breathe! 2. A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts. I am a Filipino. How philosophy can help us determine if it is true. So, let’s apply systematic doubt and revise the statement for further examination. Am I a Filipino? We can use facts to guide us in our search for truth. If you look up the word “Filipino” in a dictionary, you will come across the following definitions: Filipino (noun) 1. a native of the Philippine Islands 2. a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines We applied this perspective when we looked up the meaning of the word “Filipino” in a dictionary. We assumed that what is stated in the definition is the actual meaning of the word. 3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief.  When you asked your peer, family, relatives and friends regarding your question, all of them have the same answer then it is true. But this approach has certain limitations. (Abella 2016) Opinions are statements that go beyond providing facts. Conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts. Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true. Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning. Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is close-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Key Differences between Fact and Opinion The difference between fact and opinion on the following grounds: 1. The fact is described as the statement that can be verified or proven to be true. Opinion is an expression of judgment or belief about something. 2. Fact relies on observation or research while opinion is based on assumption. 3. The fact is an objective reality whereas opinion is a subjective statement. 4. Facts can be verified with the help of evidence or statistics. On the contrary, an opinion is not supported by any evidence. 5. Facts explain what actually happened. Unlike an opinion, which represents a perception about something. One important feature of a fact is that it is universal and does not differ from person to person. As against this, every human being has a different opinion on a particular subject and so, it varies from one person to another. Arguments This is a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. (Abella 2016) According to Abella (2016), the following are examples of fallacies: Fallacy Characteristics Example ad hominem attacking the person “Of course, he believes that presenting the the government is flawed, argument instead of he is a rebel and a the argument itself. Communist!” ad baculum using the threat of “If you do not agree with my (appeal to force) force or an undesirable political opinions, you will event to advance an receive flat 70 on your card” argument ad misericordiam using emotion such as “You can’t fire me; I have a (appeal to pity) pity or sympathy wife and 12 kids who will go hungry if I lose this job ?” ad populum the idea is presented as “Every boy your age already (appeal to the acceptable because a has a girlfriend, you should majority) lot of people accept it go find one ad antiquities the idea is “Marriage should be (appeal to acceptable because between a man and a tradition) it has been true for a woman. It has been so for a long time long time in this country; it should remain so today and in the future.” fallacy of assuming that what is “These cases of robbery in composition true of a part is true for this district have convinced the whole me that the city has become a den of thieves and criminals” fallacy of division assuming that what is “You come from a family of true for the whole is doctors and intellectuals! true for its parts Surely you can do better in this course!”  petitio principi assuming that the thing “I have a right to free (begging the or idea to be proven is speech; therefore, you question) true; also known as” cannot stop me from circular argument” talking “. post hoc assuming a “cause – “Ever since you bought that (cause- and and –effect sweater, everything has – effect) “relationship between been going wrong in your unrelated events life. You should get rid of it.” Bias When we are looking for opinion be aware of bias. These are the personal views of the person presenting it. They are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which affect the views of people. (Abella 2016) He further discuss example of Bias: Bias Characteristics Example Correspondence tendency to judge a “These soldiers who Bias person’s personality by his fought in the war are all or her actions, without bloodthirsty murderers!” regard for external factors or influences. Confirmation Bias the tendency to look for “How can I accept his and accept information in view that there is no a way that confirms one’s God? I am a Christian!” own beliefs and reject ideas that go against it. Conflict of a person or group is “As the daughter of the Interest connected to or has a accused, I believe I vested interest in the issue have the right to express being discussed. my opinion on the issue of his alleged corrupt practices.” Cultural Bias analyzing an event or “I do not agree with his issue based on one’s Western practice of cultural standards. placing aged parents in retirement homes. We Filipinos take care of our family members.” Framing focusing on a certain “Preliminary evidence aspect of a problem while has still not pointed out ignoring other aspects. the actual cause of the plane crash, but investigators are currently focusing on the possibility of pilot error.’ Methods of Philosophy Lead to Wisdom and Truth The methods of philosophy will help in learning the process of doing philosophy in a systematic way. On the other hand, philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. Although philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the subject matter of philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics; 1. Philosophical questions have answers but the answers remain in dispute. 2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith. 3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human beings. The methodology or method that philosophers use to address philosophical question is critical thinking. What separates mere thinking from critical thinking? Critical is a Greek word “kritikos” (to separate) and analysis “ana” (throughout) “lusis” (to loosen) so, critical thinking mean thinking analytically. Critical Thinking is the careful, reflective, rational and systematic approach to questions of very general interest. Critical thinking means understanding philosophy and refraining from merely giving claims but through careful thought, one reasons through to argumentation. The scientific method also leads to wisdom and truth because it uses an evidence- based approach to come up with its conclusion. In this method, all truths are supported by facts that can easily be tested or proven again through experiments, logical reasoning, or observation. How will you determine the truth from opinion? An understanding of opinions and facts and the mean to distinguish one from the other can further improve our understanding and appreciation of varied views and ideas. The ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with the holistic perspective and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in choosing the ideas and views which we find acceptable. A critical mind aided by Philosophy can help us from our own personal point of view that can guide us in making decisions and actions when we are faced with a problem.  Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are truthful and acceptable, which we can use to form our own views regarding certain matters. For Maboloc and Pascua (2008) critical thinking is a lifelong process of self- assessment that further consists of:  Defining, analyzing and devising solutions,  Arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions  Applying understanding and knowledge to new and different problems  Willingness to say, “I don’t know.” The attributes of a critical thinker include;  Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs  Adjusts opinion  Looks for proof  Examines the problem  Rejects irrelevant and innocent information The Methodic Doubt According to Rene Descartes, as cited Gilbuena (2018) the first rule is to accept nothing as true which I do not clearly recognize to be so; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitation and prejudice in my judgments, and to accept in them nothing more than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I could have no occasion to doubt it. To achieve the truth, we must doubt our senses since our senses are fallible and unreliable, that is, we must avoid our perceptual illusion. The objective of Descartes is uncertainty, and this can be possible through the method of doubt. The opposite of truth is uncertainty. That is why truth is related with uncertainty. This is what we mean by the skepticism of Descartes. On Consciousness. Phenomenology was founded by Edmund Husserl. A method for finding and guaranteeing the truth that focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or appearances. It comes from the Greek word phainómenon meaning “appearance.” It is the scientific study of the essential structures of consciousness. (Castelo 2017) Husserl’s Phenomenological Standpoint The first and best known is the epoche or “suspension” that “brackets” all questions of truth or reality and simply describes the contents of consciousness. The second reduction eliminates the merely empirical contents of consciousness and focuses instead on the essential features, the meanings of consciousness. (Castelo 2017) Evaluate Truth from Opinions in Different Situations Using the Methods of Philosophizing A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a statement using various philosophical methods, such as: Socratic, dialectic, scientific, and historical. When you evaluate information, it is very important to distinguish between fact and opinion. How do we know if something is true? Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for determining truth. It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing in order to have a better understanding of themselves and of the world. The discussion on truth is a part of Philosophical studies on knowledge where philosophers explore the nature of knowledge and the ways of knowing. Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people who may carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking an agreement with one another. Meanwhile, the scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. Logic is the truth based on reasoning and critical thinking. It includes analysis and construction of arguments. It serves as a path to freedom from half-truths and deception. Gilbuena (2018) discusses the difference of the three methods which are as follows: Socratic Method Dialectic Method Scientific Method Origin elenchus dialektike Scientia Meaning “to inquire” or “the art of “to produce “to cross- conversation” knowledge” examine” Methods ask, find or use Ask, clarify, reject Define the question, examples, reject form a hypothesis ask again. perform an experiment, collect data, draw conclusions, publish result. Purpose To gain the truth knowledge wisdom and to know Sample What made you Can you clarify What predictions Questions say that X is your response can I make about valid? about X? X? If X is valid, why What makes X How do I test the does Y contest more useful than validity of X? it? Y? What can I conclude based on my experiment? He also stated both the Socratic and Dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people who carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking an agreement with one another. Meanwhile, scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, and inductive or deductive reasoning. TYPES OF REASONING Deductive Reasoning In this type of reasoning, conclusion comes first, followed by main points, and the last will be the supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences. General idea comes first before the specific or particular idea. Inductive Reasoning In this type of reasoning, supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences come first followed by the main points and conclusion will be the last part. This is the opposite of deductive reasoning because a particular idea comes first before the general idea. Hospers (1997) further explain the two major type of Logic; Inductive - from specific to general o An inductive argument is an argument whose relationship between its premise/s and its conclusion is of probability. o If the premise/s are assumed to be true, it is still conceivable for the conclusion to be false. o E.g. Every day since I was born, the sun has risen from the East. Therefore, tomorrow the sun will rise from the East. Deductive - from general to specific o A deductive argument is an argument whose relationship between its premise/s and its conclusion is of necessity. o If the premise/s are assumed to be true, it is inconceivable for the conclusion to be false. o E.g. All garments are worn. All worn things are used. Therefore, all garments are used.