Spanish Lyric Poetry: Early Forms & Pre-Renaissance (PDF)

## 1. PRIMERAS MANIFESTACIONES LÍRICAS - We understand lyric traditional poetry as a composition in an anonymous form, orally transmitted by the common people. Its cultivation of romance began in the Arabic language. The oldest examples are the *jarchas* composed in *Mozárabe* language. - The *jar...

## 1. PRIMERAS MANIFESTACIONES LÍRICAS - We understand lyric traditional poetry as a composition in an anonymous form, orally transmitted by the common people. Its cultivation of romance began in the Arabic language. The oldest examples are the *jarchas* composed in *Mozárabe* language. - The *jarchas* show great similarities with the Galician *cantigas* and the Catalan *cançons*, which will be cultivated since the XIII century. Later, during the XV century, the Spanish *villancicos* appeared. - We can define the *jarchas* as short stanzas written in *Mozárabe* romance, which were included at the end of an Arabic or Hebrew *moaxaja*. It seems that the *jarcha* was the core of the composition: a cultured poet felt attracted by the popular little song and wrote an introductory *moaxaja*. The oldest *jarchas* date back to the X century. - The *jarchas*, like the rest of the traditional forms, tend to develop briefly a love content, expressed from the female point of view. The complaint is a very frequent motif: a young girl complains to a confidante (her mother, her sisters, nature itself, etc) for the absence of the beloved. - Formally, conciseness, repetition, and the use of affective formulas (diminutives, exclamations...) prevail. The meter is predominantly irregular, always in short verses. ### La interpretation of the jarchas: - The main difficulty we face when studying the *jarchas* lies in the fact that, despite being written with Romance words, they use Arabic script (consonantal script that doesn't include vowels), which gives rise to ambiguity regarding their actual meaning. ## 2. LA LÍRICA PRERRENACENTISTA (XV CENTURY) : As we have already mentioned, the first Spanish poems that have reached us belong to the XV century. This period, called Pre-Renaissance, is chronologically situated within the Middle Ages, although its thematic and formal aspects differ from the previous period. ### Language: - During the XV century, the language experienced continuous development. It is so evident that the linguistic situation at the end of the century shares many characteristics with the current one. - The first Grammar is by Antonio de Nebrija (1492). - Regarding literature: - Authors are inclined to reflect the living speech of their time: proverbs, popular expressions, etc. - Others, influenced by Graeco-Latin literature, enrich the language. These are the most remarkable traits: - The vocabulary expands: - Mainly based on cultismos: *igneo, turbulento, ofuscar, rubicundo, etc*, galicisms: *galán, dama, etc*, and Italianisms: *piloto, escaramuza, soneto, belleza, etc*. - Sentences become longer more complex, and the use of *hipérbaton* (inversion of word order) increases. - The number of adjectives increases, usually placed before the noun. ### 2.1 TOPICS IN LYRIC POETRY - Several themes are commonly found in Spanish poetry during the XV century: - **Love.** The concept of love in this period follows certain rules characteristic of **courtly love**. This implies that love is inescapable and ennobles the lover at the same time, transforming him into a vassal of the lady. Women are always elusive, sometimes cruel. The lover resigns himself, sighs, loves discreetly and silently. - This concept of love originated in Provençal Courts of the XII century and spread throughout European literature. - **Death**. The rising presence of this theme was due to: - The frequent wars and epidemics in the Middle Ages, especially the bubonic plague, which made death a constant, terrifying presence in the everyday lives of people. - The growing influence of preaching, particularly of mendicant orders, which chastised the faithful warning them against slackness. - The preachers constantly reminded people of the inevitability of death, using the expression _memento mori_ ('remember you will die'). - Love is often understood as a religion (_religio amoris_) where devotion to one's lady is paramount. That idea reflects the heritage of Provençal courtly love, where the lady is worshipped and given the ultimate power, while the male lover is reduced to a state of submissive servitude. ### 2.2 TRADITIONAL LYRIC POETRY - We understand traditional lyric poetry as the form that is orally transmitted by the common people since immemorial times. - These poems can be traced back to the XV century and their context is specific: - They originally are songs by peasants - inhabitants of towns and villages. - They were customarily sung at festivities or during the performance of work. - They were also used as a way to alleviate hardship. - They consist of songs of farm work, about reapers and gleaners, shepherds, etc. - There are also specific songs for different trades such as millers, fishermen or blacksmiths, and even children used them in their games. - The most common themes are: - **Love songs**: they usually present a woman who complains to a confidant (mother, sisters, nature) about the absence of her beloved. The themes of beauty, love, dates, absence or joys are frequent. - **Lamentations or dirges**. These are funeral songs: - **"Llorad las damas, sí, Dios os valga! Guillén Peraza quedó en la Palma la flor marchita de la su cara. No eres palma, eres retama, eres ciprés de triste rama, eres desdicha, desdicha mala. Tus campos rompan tristes volcanes, no vean placeres, sino pesares; cubran tus flores los arenales. Guillén Peraza, Guillén Peraza, ¿dó está tu escudo, dó está tu lanza? Todo lo acaba la mala andanza."** - **May songs:** They are dedicated to May, when spring arrives, flowers bloom, and love is in the air. - **"Entra mayo y sale abril tan garridico le vi venir. Entra mayo con sus flores, sale abril con sus amores, y los dulces amadores comienzan a bien servir. Aunque el campo se ve florido con la blanca y la roja flor, más florido se ve quien ama con las flores del amor."** - **Dawn Songs** (albas or alboradas)--: They are related to dawn, either as the time lovers say goodbye or, sometimes, as the time they meet again. - **"Al alba venid, buen amigo, al alba venid. Amigo, el que yo más quería, venid al alba del día. Amigo, el que yo más amaba, venid a la luz del alba. Venid a la luz del día, non traigais compañía. Venid a la luz del alba, non traigais gran compaña."** - **Work Songs** --: (for songs of farm work and festivities): - **"Tres morillas me enamoran en Jaén: Axa y Fátima y Marién. Tres morillas tan garridas iban a coger olivas, y hallábanlas cogidas, en Jaén. Axa y Fátima y Marién. Y hallábanlas cogidas, y tornaban desmaidas y las colores perdidas, en Jaén. Axa y Fátima y Marién."** - **Mock Songs** (burlescas). These songs are often used as a lighthearted way to spend some time. - ** -Decid, hija garrida, ¿quién os manchó la camisa?-Madre, las moras del zarzal.-Mentid, hija, mas no tanto, que no pica la zarza tan alto. A segar son idos tres con una hoz; mientras uno siega holgaban los dos.** ### Formal Aspects - Oral poetry relies on these formal devices: - **Repetition**: parallelism, anaphora, repetition of words. - **Expressive Function**: exclamations, vocabulary that conveys emotions or moods. - **Symbolic Images**: These are taken from nature and represent various aspects of love. - For example, lovers washing their faces symbolizes unity, while a spring represents a meeting place. Flowers symbolize fertility and the emergence of new life. ## 2.3 CULTURED LYRIC POETRY - During the XV century, the nobility was increasingly interested in the arts and literature, and that's how courtly poetry emerged. It is therefore a later development of a tradition already flourishing in Galician-Portuguese literature since the XII century. - The courtly love tradition developed a very specific set of rules or code: ### Code of Courtly Love The poet-lover is completely dedicated to a lady, without any power to change the situation. This is known as _vassalage of love_ and it ennobles the lover, who is elevated by the situation, and thus the figure of the _lady-enemy_ emerges. - The main traits of this Code are: - The lady belongs to a higher social class and therefore is beyond the reach of the lover. This makes his love a _boldness_. - The lady's name is kept secret to avoid slander. - The greatest pain for the lover is the inability to see his lady. - Love is unrenounceable,; it is something that endures and only ends with death. - _Originality_ is sought in the formal aspects of the poem, including complex metrical arrangements and word games. Moreover, there is a noticeable Italianizing influence and an interest in classical literature. - The most important authors of this period are: - The Marquis of Santillana, - Juan de Mena, - Jorge Manrique. - Petrarca was an outstanding poet and humanist. He is most famous for his poetry, especially his *Canzoniere*, whose sonnets to Laura had a great influence throughout Europe. He had an important influence on Garcilaso de la Vega and his concept of love. ## 2.4 THE SONGBOOKS - The cultured poetry is collected in songbooks, which are collections of poems by several authors. - The most important songbooks are: - The Songbook of Baena, with more than 600 poems by 56 poets. - The Songbook of Estúñiga. - This tradition of making songbooks continued into the XVI century producing: - The Songbook of Palaces (music) - The Songbook of Uppsala - The General Songbook of Hernando del Castillo. - These books not only feature cultured verse but also include a vast amount of folk song, either anonymous or adaptations made by cultured poets imitating the style of traditional lyric poetry. ## 2.5 JORGE MANRIQUE - Jorge Manrique (1440-1479) embodies the spirit of the XV century, when warfare gained paramount importance. He is therefore known as the **poet-warrior**. We have very few poems by Jorge Manrique but they can be divided into three groups:: - **Love poems**: They are written in the spirit of the time and are marked by simplicity, straightforwardness, and restraint. - **Mocking poems**: They are composed in the style of the traditional Spanish songs of _escarnio_ (personal attack) and _maldecir_ (denunciation). Despite their intention, they are not very successful. - **Moral Poems**: His most important work belongs to this genre: **_Coplas a la muerte de su padre_ (Coplas on the Death of his Father) - **_Coplas a la muerte de su padre_:** - This is a work that fits into a rich literary tradition in the Middle Ages which focuses on death. It has 40 stanzas divided into three parts: - In the first part (I-XIII), the universality of death is stressed. The world is transitory. - In the second part (XIV-XXIV), the poet remembers the death of illustrious people of his time. - In the third part (XXV-XL), the poet praises his father, Master Rodrigo Manrique, and his exemplary life, and celebrates his heroic death, bringing him immortality. - The poems combine elements of lament for a deceased father, celebration of a life well-lived, and consciousness of the fleeting, transitory nature of life. ## 2.6 THE SONGBOOK, A HYBRID SUB-GENRE - The Songbook of Traditional Poetry has been considered the most important manifestation of folk literature. It emerged during the Middle Ages and remains relevant to this day. It combines lyric and narrative aspects. - The Songbook is an extremely diverse collection that comprises a vast amount of poems and epic poems, with an indefinite number of octosyllabic verses, with an AABB rhyme scheme. They reflect popular traditions, and have been orally transmitted by common people for centuries. - There are two main types of Songbooks: - **Old Songbooks**: They are anonymous and date back to the XV century. - The oldest ones were collected in the form of verses. - They often show variations such as alternating 8- and 9-syllable verses, consonant rhymes, and even end rhymes. - However, the use of 8-syllable, assonant verses became the standard by the XVI century. - They are so popular that songbooks are first published in the XVI century and then the genre of the Songbook itself emerges. - **New Songbooks**: - They are written by authors such as Góngora and Lope de Vega. - They imitate the style of folk songs. ## Origin and transmission: There are several theories regarding the origin of Songbooks: - The traditionalist theory claims that they emerged from medieval epic poems (cantares de gesta). It hypothesizes that minstrels would recite popular parts of epic poems in the course of performances. This suggests that the romance verse comes from dividing epic verses in two. - **"`Rosa fresca, Rosa fresca, / tan garrida y con amor, cuando yo os tuve en mis brazos / no vos supe servir, no; y agora que os serviría / no vos puedo haber, no. -Vuestra fue la culpa, amigo, / vuestra fue, que mía no... Rosa fresca, Rosa fresca, tan garrida y con amor, cuando yo os tuve en mis brazos no vos supe servir, no; y agora que os serviría no vos puedo haber, no. -Vuestra fue la culpa, amigo, vuestra fue, que mía no...`**" - The individualist theory maintains that Songbooks were composed by anonymous authors, just as any other sort of poetry. The fact that the oldest known traditional songs are not epic in nature supports this theory. While it is true that epic poems were originally compiled by anonymous authors, these would have been primarily oral. - The transmission of Songbooks has been mainly oral. It is only later that they become written and published. - The stories are condensed into the most essential aspects, reducing them to their core, while the introduction and conclusion of the stories fade away. This process is known as _truncation_. - The common people know the story as a whole, but they tend to focus on specific parts, narrating them independently of the total narrative. This is why Songbooks might focus on the pivotal moment of a story, ignoring its origin or ending. ### The cycles: - Songbooks are grouped in cycles, based on themes or what inspired each one: - **Epic Songs**. These are derived from old epic poems, such as _Mio Cid, and the Infantes de Lara_. - **Songs inspired by legends and myths**. These are narratives that recount the stories of Charlemagne and his knights (the Carolingian cycle), and the exploits of King Arthur and his knights (the Breton cycle). - **Frontier Songs**. The poems of this group narrate events that happened on the border between Spain and the Moors. Since these songs were about events happening at the time, they often served as a form of information or propaganda. - **Songs inspired by the Bible or Ancient History**. These poems contain religious themes and are more erudite in character. - **Epic-Lyric Songs.** They are based on invented themes, combining narrative events with the lyrical expression of emotion. - Despite the diversity of themes, we can recognize a unique style in all of these poems. - The most common features of Songbooks are: - **Octosyllabic Verse**. The octosyllabic verse structure makes it easy to memorize and transmit the poems. - **Conciseness**. Over time, these poems rid themselves of irrelevant details, becoming more concise and therefore more poetic. - **Truncation**. When telling the main story, these poems skip the introductions and conclusions of the narrative, adding an element of mystery. - **Archaisms.** These poems feature archaic words and expressions, lending an old-fashioned air to the poems. - **The Use of Verbs.** They tend to use verbs that convey shifts in time. - **Repetition**. Repeating certain words and expressions is a common element of these poems. - **Antithesis and Enumeration**. These are common features due to the oral origins of this type of poetry. - **Absence of Explicit Moralizing.** There is no intention to teach or moralize in these poems. They are mainly meant to entertain, evoke emotion, or recount events. ## 3. LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY. TEXTS - **`What is a text?`**: - We use language to communicate effectively. Therefore, language is not only sounds, morphemes, words or phrases, but also the actual use in which these elements are combined. - Text is what gives meaning to language. It is a unit of intention and encompasses the entire act of communication. - The *Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy* defines "text" as: - *"Text. (From Latin _textus_)." - *"1. m. Spoken or written statement or a coherent set of statements."* - The main features of the text are: - **Texts can be composed of one or several statements**: A single word (like "Hello!", "goodbye!", "ok") or a sound (like "Hey!"), or a full set of statements, such as a poem, a letter, an advertisement, a news article, a novel, etc. - **Text is a coherent whole**: The text needs to be logically constructed and reflect a specific purpose. Its components must fit together effectively. - **Text is intended**: Every text is written or spoken for a specific purpose: to convince, persuade, inform, make a request, touch the reader's emotions, warn, etc. The format of the text must reflect this purpose. - **Text is adapted**: Texts must be adapted, not only to the language of the reader or listener, but also to their understanding. One must use a different style of speech when addressing a friend or a stranger. We also need to adjust our language to the age of the listener. - **Channels**: - The channel through which the text is transmitted is also important: written or spoken. - Written text is planned, carefully organized, and must be carefully edited. It must follow grammatical rules and be free of colloquial language or slang. - Spoken text is more spontaneous and informal; however, it is still necessary to pay attention to the structure, clarity, and rhythm. - We can distinguish between two main styles of language: - **Formal**: Formal style keeps distance between the speaker and the listener. - **Informal or Colloquial**: This style is more casual and assumes a greater degree of closeness. ## 4. THE PROPERTIES OF A TEXT - There are four major properties that shape a text: - **Type** (tipologia) - **Adaptability** (adecuación) - **Coherence** (coherencia) - **Cohesion** (cohesión) ### 4.1 TEXT TYPES - Texts can be classified based on: - **Nature**, **Content**, **Intention**, **and Structure.** - The most common text types are: - **Scientific/Technical Texts.** - Their main function is to teach the reader about the latest advances in science and technology, explaining how things work, providing instructions, and presenting data. - They tend to be objective, informative, and sometimes persuasive. - These texts are marked by precise language and a high degree of specialization. - **Humanistic Texts.** - They are focused on humans and their environment. - These texts are intended to be informative, persuasive, and aesthetically pleasing. - They employ a vocabulary that is more varied and complex. - **Legal/Administrative Texts.** - They are designed to regulate relations between individuals and administrations. - They are usually instructional, expository, and argumentative. - Their structure is typically rigid, and they often resort to specialized language, formulas and standard frameworks. - **Literary Texts.** - Literature is art that expresses itself using language. - Literary texts include: - narrative texts, descriptive texts, argumentative texts, poems, dramas, novels, etc. - These texts are often marked by an emotional approach, or express a particular point of view, and explore emotions, ideas, and values. - **Journalistic Texts**. - They are designed to present news in different media - written, spoken, visual, or graphic. - There are different types: - news articles, editorials, reports, columns, etc. - They can be objective but they sometimes include personal opinions or express strong emotions. - **Advertising Texts.** - The primary functions of advertising texts are: - to present news or announcements - to appeal to the reader's emotions and experiences, - to persuade readers to take action. - Advertising texts tend to use mixed language and visuals. ### 4.2 **TEXTUAL TYPES** - We can also classify texts according to their **function** or **use**. - The most basic types are: - **Descriptive Texts.** - They are used to describe people, places, situations, or objects. - **Narrative Texts.** - They are used to recount events or stories, real or fictional. - **Expository/Explanatory Texts.** - They aim to explain or clarify the meaning of a word, text, or doctrine. - **Argumentative Texts.** - They are used to defend or argue against a particular idea or position. - **Directive/Instructional Texts.** - Their purpose is to provide instructions on how to do something. - **Dialogue Texts.** - These texts are used to represent conversations between two or more speakers. - **Conversational Texts.** - These are characterized by the back-and-forth exchanges between two or more people, and tend to be more informal. ### 4.3 **COHERENCE** - **Coherence** makes sure the information included is appropriate and effectively conveyed to the reader. It is about choosing the content and the organizational structure of the text to achieve its purpose. - The following criteria are essential for text coherence: - **Intention**: The text must be coherent in terms of its purpose: informing the reader, persuading the reader, offering a personal opinion, etc. - **Structure**: The text must be logically organized in terms of its content and purpose. - The process of developing a coherent structure is known as **thematic progression** (progresión temática), where each section of the text introduces new information while building on the previous one. - **Type**. Choose the appropriate text type to convey your message (poem, essay, news article, advertisement, etc.). - **Function**. The text must be coherent in terms of its primary goal: informing, persuading, expressing emotions, or simply conveying information. - **Quantity**. The text should include all necessary information, but avoid including irrelevant items or information that is already known to the reader. - **Volume and Tone.** The volume and tone of the text must be in line with the subject matter, and appropriate for the audience. A poem about love delivered with a loud, aggressive voice is incoherent and unnatural. A doctor's diagnosis delivered in whispers is also incoherent. ### 4.4 **COHESION** - **Cohesion** is the quality that guarantees effective connection between the parts of a text. It relies on both semantic and syntactic elements, creating a web of relationships that reinforce coherence. - The most common **_cohesive devices_** (recursos de cohesión) are: #### **Semantic-Textual Resources:** - These resources connect elements of the text using meaning. - **Lexical Repetition** (recurrencia léxica) — using words or phrases repeatedly, either in whole or in part. - **Synonymity** — using synonyms to substitute words — "She was a good friend. She would always lend a hand when she could." - **Textual Coreference** — The text refers to the same object or person with different words; "The student arrived at the station. The girl was carrying a backpack". - **Hyperonymy** — The text uses a broader term encompassing the smaller one—"I bought some grapes and pears."—"I enjoy fruit." - **Hyponymy:** The text uses a narrower term that falls under the broader category—"John loves to read. He enjoys Hemingway." - **Antonymy:** The text employs words with opposite meanings—"The students were happy with the results; their friends were very sad." - **Lexical Networks:** The text employs words belonging to the same thematic category. #### **Syntactic-Textual Resources** - This type of resource is based on syntax, the grammatical structure of the text. - **Substitution:** The text uses pronouns, determiners, or adverbs to replace already mentioned or upcoming elements. - **Anaphora:** The pronoun refers to a noun already mentioned: "This book really surprised me. It's well written...** - **Cataphora:** The pronoun refers to a noun that will be mentioned later: "She is still here. Come meet my daughter, Maria.** - **Ellipsis:** The textual element is omitted. - **Synactic Repetition:** The text repeats grammatical structures. - **Connectors:** Connectors (discursive connectors) are words or phrases that link clauses and sentences, making connections between them. They are extremely varied, but we can group them in families: - **_Additive and Precision_**: They add or specify previously mentioned ideas. — *Indeed, in addition, furthermore, besides, moreover, apart from, in fact, moreover, as a matter of fact, on the other hand, in addition, in other words, on top of that*. - **_Adversatives_**: They oppose a previous idea. — *But, on the contrary, however, on the other hand, nevertheless, but still, however, otherwise*. - **_Concessive_**: They introduce a restriction, usually an exception to what was said before. — *Despite, even though, in any case, in spite of all that, in spite of this, although, even so, nonetheless, still, however, even so, no matter, despite that. - **_Consecutive and Illative_**: These connectors indicate a consequence of what precedes them. — *So, then, therefore (thus), in that case, consequently, as a result, for this reason. - **_Reformulators_**: They rephrase or explain a previous statement. — *That is, for instance, in other words, in that sense, namely, more precisely, better still, to put it differently, namely.* - **_Explicatives_**: They clarify or add information to the preceding statement. — *As a matter of fact, for instance, in other words, to put it differently, more precisely, in simple words, that is to say, in fact, namely, in short, to clarify, for example, for instance, to illustrate, for example, in simple words, in other words, namely, in short, to clarify. - **_Reformulators/Corrective_**: They are used to repeat an idea with slight adjustments. —*In other words, to be more precise, to put it another way.* - **_Recapitulative_**: These connectors introduce summaries. — *To sum up, in conclusion, to summarize, at any rate, at this point, at that point*. - **_Order_**: These connectors are used to point out the order of the ideas. *In the first place, firstly, to begin with, in the first instance, on the first occasion, secondly, lastly, finally, in the end, in conclusion, in addition, further, next, in the second place, moreover, moreover, moreover, lastly.* - **_Supporting Argument_**: These connectors highlight an argument that is introduced later. — *For example, namely, in this respect, in this case.* - **_Exemplifications_: ** These connectors introduce examples. —*For example, for example, as an example. - **_Digressions_:** They introduce a different topic that is related to the main one. —*Speaking of which, incidentally, by the way, while we are on the subject, in passing, to return. - **_Explanatory:_**: These connectors provide a summary of the previous section. — *Therefore, thus, so, consequently, that's why, so that*. ## 5. INCLUDING FOREIGN SPEECH IN YOUR OWN - We often quote what other people have said, and that's when we use these two common structures: ### 5.1 Direct Speech (estilo directo) - In this structure, we include the exact words spoken by someone else. We need a reporting verb — such as *say*, *tell*, *ask*, *explain*, etc. — and we can use quotation marks or dashes. - `"Come here, ` said Jean. - "I don't want to go," said Maria. ### 5.2 Indirect Speech (estilo indirecto) - In this structure, we include the words spoken by someone else, but we make adjustments to the original statement, so that the text is consistent with the overall narrative. - The adjustments involve changing the verb tense, the noun phrase, and the verbs of reporting speech. - **"I don't want to go"** becomes **"she said she didn't want to go."** ### 5.3 Free Indirect Speech (estilo indirecto libre) - This structure involves a greater shift in perspective, as the narrator adopts the voice of the person who is speaking. The narrator eliminates the formal markers of direct or indirect speech, while retaining the tone and style of the speaker. This is a very common technique in fiction, especially in narratives. - Comparison of the examples from previous pages: - **Direct Speech:** John was thinking about his interview. He said, "There won't be any problems.** - **Indirect Speech:** John was thinking about his interview. He said, "There won't be any problems." - **Free Indirect Speech:** John was thinking about his interview. There won't be any problems. <start_of_image> - **Direct Quotes:** This is the original text spoken by someone else. - **Transformations** in indirect speech: - **Tense:** - **Perfect Simple/Compound**: becomes the *Past Perfect*. - **Future Tense**: becomes the *Conditional Tense* - **Present Tense**: becomes the *Imperfect*. - **Pronouns**: If necessary, the pronoun will change, but the personification remains similar. - **Adverbs**: The adverbs and other deictic expressions will be changed to reflect the shift in perspective.