Ukjent videnskabelig studie PDF

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lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ( g]kfn ;/sf/ lzIff, lj1fg tyf k|ljlw dGqfno kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| ;fgf]l7dL, eStk'/ k|sfzs g]kfn ;/sf/ lzIff, lj1fg tyf k|ljlw dGqfno kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| ;fgf]l7dL, eStk'/ © ;jf{lwsf/ kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| 978-9937-601- - o; kf7\ok':ts;DaGwL ;Dk"0f{ clwsf/ kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| ;fgf]l7dL, eStk'/df lglxt /x]sf] 5. kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb|sf] lnlvt :jLs[ltlagf Jofkfl/s k|of]hgsf nflu o;sf] k'/} jf cf+lzs efu x'ax' k|sfzg ug{, kl/jt{g u/]/ k|sfzg ug{, s'g} ljB'tLo ;fwg jf cGo k|ljlwaf6 /]s8{ ug{ / k|ltlnlk lgsfNg kfOg] 5}g. k|yd ;+:s/0f M lj=;+ @)&( kf7\ok':ts;DaGwL kf7sx¿sf s'g} klg k|sf/sf ;¬´fjx¿ ePdf kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb|, ;dGjo tyf k|sfzg zfvfdf k7fOlbg'x'g cg'/f]w 5. kf7sx¿af6 cfpg] ;¬´fjx¿nfO{ s]Gb| xflb{s :jfut ub{5.  xfd|f] egfO lzIffnfO{ p2]Zod"ns, Jofjxfl/s, ;d;fdlos / /f]huf/d"ns agfpg ljleGg ;dodf kf7\oj|md, kf7\ok':ts ljsf; tyf kl/dfh{g sfo{nfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbOFb} cfPsf] 5. ljBfyL{df 1fgsf] vf]hL u/L l;sfO / jf:tljs hLjglar ;DaGw :yflkt ug]{, l;4fGt / Jojxf/sf] ;dGjo ug]{, :jk/fjlt{t x'Fb} 1fg, l;k / IfdtfnfO{ cBfjlws ug]{ ;Ifdtfsf] ljsf; x'g' cfjZos 5. ljBfyL{df clwsf/, :jtGqtf / ;dfgtfsf] k|jw{g ug]{, :j:y hLjgsf] cEof; ug]{, tfls{s ljZn]if0f u/L lg0f{o ug]{, j}1flgs ljZn]if0fsf cfwf/df JolSt, ;dfh / /fi6«sf] lbuf] ljsf;df ;l/s x'g] ;Ifdtfsf] ljsf; klg lzIffn] ug'k{ 5{. ljBfyL{df g}lts cfr/0f k|bz{g ug],{ ;fdflhs ;b\efjk|lt ;+jb] gzLn x'g,] kof{j/0fLo ;Gt'ngk|lt ;+j]bgzLn x'g], åGå Joj:yfkg ub}{ lbuf] zflGtsf nflu k|lta4 /xg] ;Ifdtfsf] ljsf; klg dfWolds txsf] lzIffaf6 ck]lIft 5g\. o; txsf] lzIffaf6 cfw'lgs 1fg, l;k, ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlwsf] k|of]u ug]{, :jfjnDaL / Joj;fod'vL l;ksf] cEof; ug]{, /fi6«, /fli6«otf / /fli6«o cfbz{sf] ;Ddfg ug]{, ;dfh :jLsfo{ cfr/0f / sfo{ ;+:s[ltsf] cjnDag ug]{, ;lxi0f'efj /fVg] ;Ifdtf ePsf] gful/s tof/ ug{] ck]Iff /x]sf] 5. To:t}, l;h{gzLn, sNkgfzLn, pBdzLn Pjd\ pRr ;f]r / cfbz{df cfwfl/t Jojxf/ ug]{, ;d;fdlos r'gf}tLx¿sf] ;kmn Joj:yfkg ug{]nufotsf ljz]iftfn] o'St :jfjnDaL, b]zeSt, kl/jt{gd'vL, lrGtgzLn Pjd\ ;dfj]zL ;dfh lgdf{0fdf of]ubfg ug{ ;Sg] ;Ifdtf;lxtsf] gful/s tof/ ug'{ dfWolds lzIffsf] nIo /x]sf] 5. oxL nIo k"lt{sf nflu dfWolds lzIffsf] /fli6«o kf7\oj|md k|f¿k, @)&^ sf] dfu{bz{g l;4fGtcg'¿k ljsf; ePsf] dfWolds lzIff -sIff (–!)_ kf7\oj|mdcg';f/ tof/ kfl/Psf] kf7\ok':tsnfO{ b]zsf ljleGg ljBfnodf k/LIf0f u/L k|fKt k[i7kf]if0f ;d]6L of] gd'gf kf7\ok':ts tof/ kfl/Psf] xf]. o; kf7\ok':tssf] n]vg tyf kl/dfh{g sfo{ >L lrGtfd0fL kGyL, >L lvns'df/ k|wfg, >L hgs/fh kGt, >L xl/k|;fb /]UdL, >L s]z/axfb/ v'nfn, >L hok|sf;nfn >Ljf:tj, >L lvngf/fo0f >]i7af6 ePsf] xf]. kf7\ok':tsnfO{ o; ¿kdf Nofpg] sfo{df s]Gb|sf dxflgb]z { s >L c0fk|;fb Gof}kfg], k|f=8f= /hgL/fh e08f/L], >L k|ldnf avtL, 8f= Clif ltjf/L, >L df]xg kf}8]n / >L ldgf >]i7 nufotsf dxfg'efjsf] ljz]if of]ubfg /x]sf] 5. o;sf] ljifoj:t' ;Dkfbg >L o'j/fh clwsf/L, efiff ;Dkfbg >L lrgfs'df/L lg/f}nfaf6 ePsf] xf]. o;sf] snf ;Dkfbg >L >Lxl/ >]i7af6 ePsf] xf]. o; k':tssf] ljsf; sfo{df ;+nUg ;a}k|lt kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| wGojfb k|s6 u5{. kf7\ok':tsnfO{ lzIf0fl;sfOsf] dxŒjk"0f{ ;fwgsf ¿kdf lnOG5. o;af6 ljBfyL{n] kf7\oj|mdåf/f nlIft ;Ifdtf xfl;n ug{ dbt k'Ug] ck]Iff ul/Psf] 5. o; kf7\ok':tsnfO{ ;s];Dd lj|mofsnfkd'vL, cg'ejs]lGb|t, p2]Zod"ns / ?lrs/ agfpg] k|oTg ul/Psf] 5. l;sfO / ljBfyL{sf] hLjGt cg'ejlar tfbfTDo sfod ub]{ o;sf] ;xh k|of]u ug{ lzIfsn] ;xhstf{, pTk|]/s, k|jw{s / vf]hstf{sf ¿kdf e"ldsfsf] ck]Iff ul/Psf] 5. kf7\ok':tsnfO{ cem} kl/is[t kfg{sf nflu lzIfs, ljBfyL{, cleefjs, a'l4hLjL Pjd\ ;Dk"0f{ kf7sx¿sf] ;d]t dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf /xg] x'Fbf ;Da4 ;a}sf] /rgfTds ;'emfjsf nflu kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| xflb{s cg'/f]w u5{. g]kfn ;/sf/ lzIff, lj1fg tyf k|ljlw dGqfno lj= ;+= @)&( kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb|  ljifo;"rL PsfO ljifoj:t' k[i7;ª\Vof ! j}1flgs cWoog 1 @= ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f 17 #= Rofp 27 $= j|md ljsf; 36 %= zf/Ll/s ;+/rgf / hLjg k|lj|mof 49 ^= k|s[lt / jftfj/0f 80 &= an / rfn 97 *= ;/n oGq 127 (= pmhf{ 141 !)= t/ª\u 156 !!= ljB't 173 !@= a|x\df08 194 !#= ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlw 206 !$= k/df0f' ;+/rgf / /f;folgs aG8 226 !%= /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof 247 !^= s]xL Uof“;x¿ 257 !&= wft' / cwft' 272 !*= sfa{g / o;sf of}lusx¿ 283 !(= s[lif If]qdf k|of]u x'g] kbfy{x¿ 292  ! j}1flgs cWoog (Scientific Study) j}1flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ cjnf]sg÷ lh1fzf÷ vf]hsf nflu k|Zg kl/sNkgf lgdf{0f k|of]uaf6 k/LIf0f kl/0ffd / lgisif{ kl/sNkgf k/LIf0f kl/sNkgf k|dfl0ft ePdf kl/sNkgf k|dfl0ft gePdf k|ltj]bg lrq 1.1 lrq 1.2 j}1flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ lrq 1.1 df lbOPsf kmnk"mn tyf /f;folgs kbfy{x¿df x'g] cDnLo, Iff/Lo jf t6:y u'0fsf] j}1flgs cWoogsf nflu k|Zg, kl/sNkgf, k|of]ufTds sfo{ / tYofª\s ;ª\sng ljlw s] s] x'g ;S5g\ < dfly lrq 1.2 df j}1flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ lbOPsf 5g\. j}1flgs l;sfOcGtu{t tYofª\s tyf k|df0fsf] ;ª\sngsf nflu ljleGg lsl;dsf k|of]ufTds sfo{x¿ ul/G5g\. lrq 1.1 df lbOPsf kmnk"mn tyf /f;folgs kbfy{x¿df x'g] cDnLokgf, Iff/Lokgf jf t6:y u'0faf/] j}1flgs cWoogsf nflu k|of]ufTds sfo{af6 cfjZos tYofª\s -pH dfg_ ;ª\sng ul/G5. j}1flgs cWoogdf k|of]ufTds sfo{x¿ k|of]uzfnfdf jf aflx/L jftfj/0fdf ul/G5g\. j}1flgs cWoogsf nflu tYofª\s ;ª\sng ubf{ tyf lj1fgsf ljleGg ljifo j:t'x¿sf] cWoog ubf{ ;fgf tyf 7'nf kl/df0fx¿sf] gfk lng'k5{. To:tf gfknfO{ j}1flgs k4ltcg';f/ n]lvG5. gfkdf x'g ;Sg] ;Defljt q'l6 Go"g ug{ k6s k6ssf] dfkgaf6 cf};t gfksf] dfg lnOG5. 1.1 j}1flgs k|lj|mofut l;kx¿ (Science process skills) j}1flgs l;kn] j}1flgs l;sfOsf] cfwf/ tof/ kf5{g\. xfdLdf lj1fg;DaGwL 1fgsf cltl/St lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 1 j}1flgs k|lj|mofut l;k / j}1flgs clej[lQ -scientific attitude_ cfjZos k5{. j}1flgs k|lj|mofut l;kcGtu{t cjnf]sg ug]{ -observing_, k|Zg ;f]Wg] -questioning_, juL{s/0f ug{] -classifying_, cg'dfg ug]{ -predicting_, JofVof ug]{ (interpreting_, dfkg ug]{ (measuring_, lgisif{ lgsfNg] (concluding_, ;~rf/ ug]{ -communicating_ cflb l;kx¿ k5{g\. j}1flgs k|lj|mofut l;kx¿sf] cEof;sf nflu tnsf lj|mofsnfk ug'{xf];\ M lj|mofsnfk 1.1 p2]Zo M j}1flgs k|lj|mofut l;k cEof; ug'{ cfjZos ;fdu|L M sfuh, s}FrL ljlw 1. tnsf lrqx¿df b]vfOP h:t} sfuhsf] xjfO{hxfhsf ljleGg gd'gf vf]hL u/L cWoog ug'{xf];\. 2. tLdWo] s'g gd'gf 5fg]/ xjfO{hxfh agfpFbf pSt xjfO{hxfh nfdf] ;do xfjfdf /xg], 6f9f;Dd p8\g] aG5 xf]nf < cg'dfg ug'{xf];\. 3. A4 ;fOhsf] sfuhsf kfgf lng'xf];\ / cfk"mnfO{ pko'St nfu]sf] gd'gf 5fGg'xf];\. tkfOFn] 5fg]sf] gd'gfcg';f/sf] hxfh lgdf{0f ug'{xf];\. 4. tkfO{Fn] agfPsf] hxfhnfO{ p8fpg'xf];\ / ;fyLx¿n] agfPsf] hxfh;Fu t'ngf ug'{xf];\. lrq 1.3 sfuhsf] xjfO{hxfh gd'gf s lrq 1.4 sfuhsf] xjfO{hxfh gd'gf v 5nkmn / lgisif{ M tkfO{Fn] 5fGg' ePsf] gd'gfdf s'g} lsl;dsf] kl/dfh{g u/]/ s;/L klxn]sf] eGbf /fd|f] gd'gfdf ¿kfGt/0f ug{ ;lsG5, ljrf/ ug'{xf];\. o; lj|mofsnfkaf6 s'g s'g j}1flgs k|lj|mofut l;kx¿ k|of]u eP, 5nkmn ug'{xf];\. 2 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 1.2 j}1flgs l;sfO (Scientific learning) lrq 1.5 jfikLs/0f / b|jLs/0fsf] cjnf]sg lrq 1.6 k|fs[lts 36gf -hnrj|m_ lsTnLdf lrof ksfpFb} ubf{ 6'6Laf6 lgl:sPsf] afkm wft'sf] lr;f] l/sfkLsf] lkFwdf kbf{ yf]kf ag]/ tn em5{. pSt lr;f] l/sfkLnfO{ x6fP/ tftf] kfgL ePsf] l/sfkL /fVbf kfgLsf] yf]kf aGg] k|lj|mof sd x'G5. l/sfkL w]/} lr;f] x'Fbf a9L yf]kfx¿ aG5g\ eg] tftf] x'Fbf sd yf]kfx¿ aG5g\. of] cWoogaf6 afkmaf6 kfgLsf yf]kf aGg] k|lj|mofdf afkm 7Ss/ vfg] ;txsf] tfkj|mdsf] e"ldsf x'G5 egL lgisif{ lgsfNg ;lsG5. cfsfzdf afbn agL kfgL kg]{ k|lj|mofdf klg xfjfsf] tfkj|mdsf] e"ldsf x'G5. To;}n] df};d k"jf{g'dfg ljefun] k[YjLsf] ;txaf6 prfO a9\bf tfkj|md 36\g] j|mdaf/] cfjZos tYofª\s ;ª\sng ub{5 / pSt tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0fsf cfwf/df jiff{sf] dfqfsf] k"jf{g'dfg ub{5. lj1fgnfO{ 1fg lgdf{0f k|lj|mofsf ¿kdf lnOG5. of] k|fs[lts 36gfnfO{ k|df0fsf cfwf/df JofVof ug{ k|of]u x'g] Ps ;ª\ul7t ljlw xf]. 1fg ljsf;sf nflu cfjZos k|df0fx¿ xfd|f 1fg]lG›o / ljleGg pks/0fx¿sf] k|of]uåf/f k|fKt ul/G5. lrq 1.2 df b]vfOP h:t} u/L j}1flgs l;sfOsf ljleGg r/0fx¿ x'G5g\. s'g} 36gf jf ;d:ofsf] cjnf]sg ug{] / To;sf ;DaGwdf lh1f;f /fVg] jf vf]hsf nflu k|Zg agfpg] sfo{ j}1flgs l;sfOsf] klxnf] r/0f xf]. bf];|f] r/0fdf kl/sNkgf lgdf{0f ul/G5 eg] t];|f] r/0fdf k|of]ufTds sfo{ u/L tYofª\s ;ª\sng ul/G5. rf}yf] r/0fdf ;ª\slnt tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0faf6 kl/0ffd / lgisif{ lgsflnG5. kfFrf}F r/0fdf lgisif{sf cfwf/df kl/sNkgf ldn] gldn]sf] k/LIf0f ul/G5. kl/sNkgf ldn]df cg';Gwfgsf] k|ltj]bg tof/ u/L ;~rf/ ul/G5. of] j}1flgs cWoogsf] clGtd r/0f xf]. kl/sNkgf gldn]df cWoogsf] k|Zg / kl/sNkgf kl/dfh{g u/L k'gM ;a} r/0fx¿ bf]xf]¥ofOG5. 5nkmn u/f}“ lrq 1.7 df pNn]v ePcg';f/ j}1flgs ljlwaf6 sf]/f]gf efO/; lj?4sf] vf]k ljsf;sf dxŒjk"0f{ r/0fx¿cGtu{t s] s:tf lsl;dsf k|Zg, cg'dfg, k|of]ufTds sfo{ / tYofª\sx¿ ;ª\sng ul/Psf x'g ;S5g\ < lrq 1.7 j}1flgsljlwaf6 sf]/f]gf efO/; la?4sf] vf]k ljsf;sf dxŒjk"0f{ r/0fx¿ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 3 lrq 1.7 df sf]/f]gf] efO/; lj?4sf] vf]k ljsf;sf nflu pSt efO/;sf] d';fdf kg]{ c;/sf] cjnf]sg ul/of]. To;kl5 d';fdf k/]sf] c;/sf] cWoogsf nflu cfjZos tYofª\sx¿sf] ;ª\sng / ltgsf] ljZn]if0f ul/of]. To;sf cfwf/df gd'gf EoflS;gsf] ljsf; u/L vf]hstf{x¿n] cg'dfg u/]cg';f/sf] glthf cfP gcfPsf] k/LIf0f ug{ klxn] 5gf]6 ul/Psf hgfj/df vf]k nufOof]. To;sf] k"0f{ ;kmntfkZrft\ 5gf]6 ul/Psf dflg;df k/LIf0f ul/of]. ;du|df vf]ksf] ;kmntfkl5 dfq pSt vf]knfO{ cGo dflg;x¿df nufpgsf nflu cg'dlt lbOof]. j}1flgs l;sfOaf6 k|fKt lgisif{sf cfwf/df lgod tyf l;4fGtx¿ k|ltkfbg ul/G5g\. j}1flgsx¿n] dfly pNn]v u/]sf j}1flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ cjnDag u/L k|s[lt;Fu ;DalGwt an, pmhf{, kbfy{, hLjx¿sf] pTklQ, k[YjLsf] agf]6nufot cGtl/If h:tf ljleGg If]qx¿ af/]df Jojl:yt cWoog u/]sf 5g\. pgLx¿n] j}1flgs cWoogsf] lgisif{af6 lgod tyf l;4fGtx¿ k|ltkfbg u/]sf 5g\. pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf ;/ cfOHofs Go'6g -Sir Issac Newton_ n] s'g} b'Ocf]6f lk08x¿lar pTkGg x'g] u'?Tjfsif{0f an;DaGwL lgod k|ltkfbg u/]sf 5g\. 1.3 lj1fgsf If]qx¿ (Fields of science) hLjg lj1fg, ef}lts lj1fg, /;fog lj1fg, e" tyf cGtl/If lj1fg, jftfj/0f lj1fg cflb lj1fgsf d'Vo If]qx¿ x'g\. -s_ hLj lj1fg (Biology) lrq 1.8 df b]vfOPsf ds}sf la?jfx¿ -kf]l;nf] ds}_ g]kfn s[lif cg';Gwfg s]Gb|sf [Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)] j}1flgsx¿n] ljsf; u/]sf] ds}sf] k|hflt xf]. o:tf k|hfltsf] ljsf;sf nflu hLjsf j+zf0f'x¿sf] cWoog ul/G5. hLjx¿sf af/]df Jojl:yt cWoog ul/g] If]q hLj lj1fg xf]. hLj lj1fg cWoog ug]{ j}1flgsx¿ hLj zf:qL -Biologist_ x'g\. hLj zf:qLx¿n] ;hLjx¿sf u'0fx¿, k|hgg, lgisf;g, Zjf;k|Zjf; / hLjgz}nL, zf/Ll/s ;+/rgf, lrq 1.8 gfs{åf/f ljsf; ltgsf] cGo hLjx¿ tyf jftfj/0fl;tsf] cGt/lj|mofaf/] cWoog ul/Psf] ds}sf] k|hflt u5{g\. o;cGtu{t cfFvfn] b]Vg g;lsg] ;"Id hLjf0f'b]lv ax'sf]ifLo 7'nf :tgwf/L hLjx¿sf af/]df cWoog ul/G5. hLj lj1fgsf If]qdf gofF gofF cfljisf/x¿ eO/x]sf x'G5g\. g]kfnsf cfFvf ;h{g -Eye surgeon_ ;Gb's ?Otn] klg hLj lj1fgsf If]qdf sfo{ ubf{ ub}{ OG6«fcs'n/ n]G; -Intra ocular lens_ sf] cflj:sf/ u/]sf 5g\. o;n] ubf{ df]ltlaGb' -Cataract_ sf] lgs} ;:tf] / e/kbf]{ pkrf/ lrq 1.9 ;Gb's ?Ot ;Dej ePsf] 5. 4 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( -v_ ef}lts lj1fg -Physics) u'?Tjfsif{0f an;DaGwL lgod / rfn;DaGwL lgodx¿ ;/ cfOHofs Go'6gn] k|ltkfbg u/]sf lyP. To;}u/L :6]km]g xlsG;n] a|x\df08;DaGwL a[xt\ cWoog u/]sf lyP. an, rfn, zlSt tyf cGo ef}lts k|lj|mof;DaGwL cWoog ug]{ ljifonfO{ ef}lts zf:q elgG5. ef}lts zf:q;DaGwL cWoog ug]{ j}1flgs ef}lts zf:qL -Physicist_ x'g\. ef}lts lj1fgcGtu{t k/df0f'b]lv a|Xdf08;Ddsf ef}lts k|lj|mofx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5. -u_ /;fog lj1fg (Chemistry) lrq 1.10 ;/ cfOHofs Go'6g (Sir Issac Newton) hf]g 8fN6gn] k/df0f'sf] agfj6;DaGwL l;4fGt k|ltkfbg u/]sf lyP. o;}u/L lbldqL d]G8lnen] tŒjsf u'0fx¿sf] cWoog u/L ltgnfO{ kf/df0fljs ef/sf cfwf/df juL{s/0f u/]sf lyP. kbfy{ / ltgsf u'0fx¿df s;/L kl/jt{g cfpF5 egL Jojl:yt cWoog ul/g] If]q /;fog zf:q xf]. /;fog zf:q cWoog ug]{ j}1flgsx¿ /;fog zf:qL -Chemist_ x'g\. /;fog lj1fgcGtu{t k/df0f' / c0f'sf cfwf/df kbfy{sf u'0fx¿ cWoog ul/G5. o;cGtu{t ;fdfGo /f;folgs lrq 1.12 lbldqL d]G8lne k|ltlj|mofb]lv Go'lSno/ k|ltlj|mof;Ddsf] cWoog kb{5. (Dmitri Mendeleev) dfly plNnlvt tLg d'Vo If]qx¿af6 k|fKt 1fgsf cfwf/df ag]sf lj1fgsf s]xL ljlzi6 If]qx¿ klg 5g\. o:tf If]qx¿nfO{ cGt/ljifos If]qx¿ dfGg ;lsG5. e"lj1fg, cGtl/If lj1fg, s[lif lj1fg, jftfj/0f lj1fg cflb cGt/ljifos If]qsf pbfx/0f x'g\. lj|mofsnfk 1.2 tnsf] tflnsfdf lbOPsf lj1fgsf If]q, ltgsf zfvf, / k];fut cj;/x¿ cWoog tyf 5nkmnaf6 ;DalGwt sfo{x¿ n]Vg'xf];\. If]q zfvf k];fut cj;/x¿ sfo{ Zoology, Botany, Genetic, hLj zf:qL, lrlsT;s, h]g]l6s hLj lj1fg Microbiology, Medical OlGhlgo/, science, Biotechnology Neuclear Physics , Atomic OlGhlgo/, /]l8of]nf]lh:6, physics, Optics, Astro Gffktf}n lj1, ef}lts zf:qL ef}lts zf:q physics, Modern physics Engineering, Raidography, Measurement lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 5  Organic Chemistry, kmd{sf]nf]lh:6, /;fog zf:qL, Inorganic Chemistry, /f;fog zf:q (Chemist) /;fog OlGhlgo/ Physical Chemistry, Bio- chemistry, Nano chemistry e"lj1fg, vuf]n lj1fg, e"ue{ljb\ -geologist_, vuf]nljb\ cGt/ljifos jftfj/0f lj1fg, -astronomist_, AffnL lj1, If]qx¿ df6f] lj1, jftfj/0fljb\ s[lif lj1fg -Environmentlist_ kl/of]hgf sfo{ ;d'bfodf lj1fgsf ljleGg If]qx¿dWo] s'g} Ps If]qsf] cWoog u/]sf JolStx¿sf] ljj/0f tn tflnsfdf lbOP h:t} u/L ;ª\sng ug'{xf];\. gfd cWoog u/]sf] lj1fgsf] If]q k];fut gfd sfo{ lj1fgsf ljleGg If]qx¿sf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt s]xL dxŒjk"0f{ pknlAwx¿ If]q dxŒjk"0f{ pknlAwx¿ hLj ;h{/L, Snf]lGfª (Cloning), cª\u k|Tof/f]k0f (Transplantation), EoflS;g (Vaccine), lj1fg 6]:66\o'a a]aL (Test tube baby), l7dfxf k|hflt (Hybrid) ljsf; cflb ef}lts ljB't OlGhg (Engine), ;"Idbz{s oGq (Microscope), PS; /] (X-Ray) ;~rf/ lj1fg k|ljlwsf] ljsf;, oftfoft k|ljlwsf] ljsf; /;fog cf}ifwL (Medicine), cf}Bf]lus /;fog -OGwg, Knfl:6s, wft', l;d]G6, /f;folgs lj1fg dn ls6gf;s ljiffbL_ lj|mofsnfk 1.3 lj1fgsf ljleGg If]qsf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt dxŒjk"0f{ pknlAwsf] cWoogkZrft\ tkfO{“nfO{ cWoogsf] rf;f] nfu]sf] If]q s'g xf] < pSt If]qsf] cWoogkZrft\ tkfO{“sf] ;Defljt vf]hLsf] ljifo s] x'G5 xf]nf < sIffdf 5nkmn ug'{xf];\. 1.4 lj1fgsf k|of]ufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpg'kg]{ ;'/Iff pkfox¿ lj1fgsf] k|of]ufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpg'kg]{ ;'/Iff pkfox¿ ;DaGwdf tnsf k|Zgx¿df 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ M 1. uf9f cDnaf6 lkmSsf cDn s;/L agfOG5 < 2. cNsf]xnnfO{ las/df /fvL ttfpFbf s] x'G5 < 6 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  lrq 1.14 j}1flgs cWoogdf k|of]ufTds sfo{x¿ ul/G5g\. Kf|of]uzfnfdf tyf aflx/L jftfj/0fdf ljleGg k|o]fufTds sfo{ ubf{ ;fjwfgL ckgfpg'k5{. ;fjwfgLlagf sfo{ ubf{ b'3{6gf x'g ;S5. cNsf]xnnfO{ las/df /fvL ttfpFbf aN5 / b'36{gf x'G5. o;af6 aRg kfgLdf /fvL ttfpFbf ;'/lIft x'G5. h;nfO{ jf6/afy elgG5. To:t}u/L s8f cDnnfO{ lkmSsf cDn agfpFbf cDndf kfgL xfNg' x'Fb}g. kfgLdf lj:tf/} cDn /fVg'k5{. o;/L s'g} klg lsl;dsf] k|of]u ubf{ xf]l;of/Lk"j{s sfd ug{'k5{. k|of]ufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpg'kg]{ ;'/Iff pkfox¿ lgDgcg';f/ 5g\ M 1. lzIfssf] pkl:yltdf dfq k|of]u ug{'k5{. 2. k|of]uzfnfdf sfd ubf{ lab coat, r:df, kGhf cflb ;'/Iffsf ;fdu|Lx¿ k|of]u ug'{k5{. 3. s'g} b'3{6gf ePdf lzIfsnfO{ t'?Gt va/ ug{'k5{. 4. s'g} pks/0f rnfpg'eGbf klxn] o;sf] af/]df hfgsf/L x'g'k5{. 5. k|of]u ubf{ /;fog rflxg] hlt dfqfdf dfq lnO{ k|of]u ug{'k5{. 6. /;fog Kf|of]u ubf{ ;fjwfgL ckgfpg'k5{. 7. k|of]u ubf{ e\mofn 9f]sf v'nf /fVg'k5{. 8. s8f cDn rflxPdf lzIfsnfO{ va/ ug'{k5{. 9. /;fog k|of]u ubf{ rfVg' x'Fb}g. 10. k|of]u ul/;s]kl5 k|of]u u/]sf] 7fFp ;kmf ug{'k5{ / k|of]u u/]sf pks/0fx¿ k"j{ :yfgdf /fVg'k5{. 11. k|of]ukl5 ;fa'g kfgLn] xft w'g'k5{. /]l8of]wdL{ kbfy{;DaGwL k|of]u ug]{ j|mddf plrt ;fjwfgL gckgfpFbf /]l8of]wdL{ ljls/0fsf] c;/n] Marie Curie nfO{ No's]lddf /f]u nflu d[To' ePsf] lyof]. lrq 1.15 Marie Curie lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 7 1.5 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwsf pknlAw / r'gf}tLx¿ lj1fgsf] ljsf;;Fu} ljleGg sfo{x¿ ;lhnf] u/L l56f] ug{sf nflu ljleGg pkfox¿sf] vf]hL eof]. ljleGg dflg;n] j}1flgs cWoogaf6 k|fKt lgisif{af6 k|ljlw;Fu ;DalGwt pks/0fx¿sf] cfljisf/x¿ u/]. h]D;jf6 -James Watt_ n] af:k OlGhg -Steam engine_ sf] ljsf; u/]sf lyP. o;sf] cljisf/af6 oftfoftsf] k|ljlwdf csNkgLo ¿kfGt/0f ePsf] lyof]. kfgLsf] afkmaf6 lah'nL pTkfbg ug]{ csf]{ dxŒjk"0f{ cflj:sf/ xf]. pbfx/0fsf nflu kf/df0fljs e6\6L -Nuclear power plant_ df hg]/]6/;Fu hf]l8Psf] 6jf{OgnfO{ kfgLsf] afkmn] 3'dfP/ lah'nL pTkfbg ul/G5. lrq 1.16 jf:k OlGhg lrq 1.17 /l;ofdf cjl:yt kf/df0fljs e6\6L k|ljlwsf] ljsf;;Fu} To;sf] plrt Joj:yfkg klg cfjZos x'G5. dfly pNn]v ul/Psf] af:k OlGhg -steam engine_ df kfgL ttfpg k|of]u x'g] sf]Onfn] cTolws dfqfdf jfo' k|b'if0f u¥of]. To:t} cf0fljs e6\6Laf6 pTkGg x'g] pkpTkfbg (by product) sf] Joj:yfkg tyf o;sf] ;'/Iff lgs} r'gf}tLk"0f{ 5. pbfx/0fsf nflu hfkfgsf] k'ms';Ldf ;g\ 2011 df uPsf] e"sDkn] kf/df0fljs e6\6L eTsg uO{ ljgfzsf/L ljls/0fx¿ jftfj/0fdf 5l/Psf lyP. t;y{ lj1fg tyf k|ljlwsf pknlAw;Fu} r'gf}tLx¿ klg hf]l8Psf 5g\. o'j|]mgsf] r]gf]{ljndf ;g\ 1986 df ePsf] kf/df0fljs e6\6L lj:kmf]6g eP/ 5l/Psf] ljls/0fn] ubf{ o'j|]mgnufot o;sf cf;kf;sf b]zx¿df wghgsf] 7'nf] Iflt ePsf] lyof]. ;g\ 1984 df ef/tsf] ef]kfndf ePsf] UofF; r'xfj6sf sf/0fn] sl/a 2300 hgfsf] Hofg uPsf] lyof]. lj|mofsnfk 1.4 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwsf] ljsf;n] pknlAw / o;n] NofPsf] r'gf}tLx¿ tn lbOPsf] tflnsfdf lbPsf] 5. cWoog tyf 5nkmn u/L yk pknlAw / r'gf}tLx¿ vf]hL ug'{xf];\. 8 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  j|m=; If]qx¿ pknlAw r'gf}tLx¿ 1. :jf:Yo /f]u lgbfg ug{ ;lhnf] ePsf], ljls/0f dfqf a9L x'Fbf sf]ifx¿ k|efjsf/L pkrf/ k4ltsf] ljsf; gi6 x'g], ca'{b /f]u -cancer_ x'g] ePsf], sltko /f]ux¿ pGd"ng ;Defjgf x'g] -cf}nf] /f]u_ ePsf], dfgj z/L/sf cª\u k|Tof/f]k0f, r]s hfFr k|ljlw -PS;/], l;l6:Sofg, cN6«f;fpG8_ nufot ljsf; ePsf] 2. oftfoft hn, :yn, xjfO{ oftfoftdf kx'Fr o;af6 lg:s]sf] w'jfaf6 jfo' k|b'if0f x'g], Wjlg k|b'if0f 3. s[lif ls6gfzs ljiffbL, dn, j}1flgs /}yfg] k|ljlw / lap nf]k x'bF } s[lif k|0ffnL, pGgt laplahg, uPsf] lapljhg tyf s[lif pTkfbgdf j[l4, ef]sd/L sdL pkhx¿df k/lge{/tf a9\b} uPsf], df6f]sf] IfoLs/0f x'bF } uPsf], dfgj :jf:Yodf gsf/fTds c;/ k/]sf] 4. lzIff ICT, b'/ lzIff, cg';Gwfg, ICTsf] a9L k|of]usf sf/0fn] ;"rgfsf] kx'Frdf j[l4 ljleGg :Jff:Yo ;d:of, PSnf]kgf , jf:tljs ;+;f/ eGbf eRo'{on ;+;f/df /dfpg] k|j[lt a9]sf], ;fdflhsLs/0f vnn x'g] 5. snsf/vfgf pkef]udf kx'Fr, cTofw'lgs /f;foflgs k|b'if0f, jftfj/0fLo pks/0fx¿sf] k|of]u x|f;, ljZjtfkLs/0f 6. P=cfO{= :jrflnt k|ljlwsf] ljsf; ePsf] JolStut uf]]kgLotf eª\u x'g], (Artificial dfgj hLjgofkgdf ;xh ePsf] a]/f]huf/L a9\g] Inteligence) 1.6 j}1flgs gfk (Scientific Measurement) lj1fgdf gfksf] 7'nf] dxŒj /x]sf] x'G5. s'g} ef}lts kl/df0fsf] dfkgnfO{ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tdf JoSt ug]{ ul/G5. j}1flgs ;ª\s]tg lj1fgsf ljleGg k|of]ufTds sfo{x¿ ubf{ j:Tf'sf] dfkg ul/G5. To;af6 ;ª\sng ul/Psf tYofª\sx¿sf] ljZn]if0f u/L lgisif{ lgsflnG5. j}1flgs cWoog ljlwdf cWoogsf] If]qcg';f/ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 9 clt g} ;"Id AofS6]l/of, efO/;b]lv 7'nf 7'nf lk08x¿ h:t}M k[YjLsf] lk08, ;"o{sf] lk08, cflb ;Fu ;DalGwt gfksf tYofª\s ;ª\sng ug{'kg]{ x'g;S5. o; j|mdsf ;fgf tyf 7'nf ;ª\Vofsf] k|of]u ug{'k5{. pbfx/0fsf nflu Pp6f efO/;sf] ;fOh 0.00000000001 ld6/ / k[YjL / ;"o{larsf] b'/L 15,00,00,000 lsnf]ld6/nfO{ h:tfsf] To:t} n]Vg sl7gfO x'G5. o; lsl;dsf] ;fgf] tyf 7'nf] ;ª\VofnfO{ 10 sf] 3ftfª\sdf n]lvG5, o;nfO{ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tg (Scientific Notation) elgG5. j}1flgs ;ª\s]tgsf] k|of]un] w]/} ;fgf] ;ª\Vof jf 7'nf] ;ª\VofnfO{ ;lhn};Fu JoSt ug{ ;lsG5. j}1flgs cWoogdf cfsfzLo lk08x¿ larsf] b'/Lsf] dfkgsf ;fy} cfFvfn] b]Vg g;lsg] clt ;"Id j:t'sf] -k/df0f'sf] ;fOh_ ;fOhnfO{ ;lhn};Fu j}1flgs ;ª\s]tgdf JoSt ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5, h:t} M 101 = 10 10-1 = 0.1 102 = 100 10-2 = 0.01 103 = 1000 10-3 = 0.001 106 = 1000000 10-6 = 0.000001 109 = 1000000000 10-9 = 0.000000001 1.7 j}1flgs ;ª\s]tdf JoSt ug]{ tl/sf pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf k"j{ klZrd /fhdfu{sf] nDafO sl/a 1030 km = 1030×1000 m=1030000 m 5. o;nfO{ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tdf n]Vbf cGtdf /x]sf] bzdnjsf] :yfgnfO{ 6 :yfg afofF ;f/L bzsf] 3ftfª\sdf 6 n]lvG5. k"j{ klZrd /fhdfu{sf] nDafO = 1.030×106 m 3ftfª\s (indices) cfwf/ (base) u'0ffª\s dlG6;f (mantissa) (coefficient) cGo s]lx pbfx/0fx¿ ;ª\Vof -gfk_ ¿kfGt/0fsf] r/0f j}1flgs ;ª\s]t 83,000 MW = bzdnjsf] :yfgnfO{ bz :yfg afofFlt/ 8.3×10 10 W 83000000000 W ;fg'{kg]{ k[YjL / ;"o{larsf] b'/L = ===================== ===============1.5×108 km 150000000 km sf]/f]gf efO/;sf] ;fOh bzdnjsf] :yfgnfO{ ;ft :yfg bfofFlt/ Ö 1×10-7 m Ö 0.0000001 m ;fg'{kg]{ 10 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( j}1flgs ;ª\s]tgsf lgodx¿ 1. cfwf/ hlxn] klg 10 x'G5. 2. 3ftfª\s lh/f] x'Fb}g / (+) jf (-) x'G5. 3. u'0ffª\s 1 b]lv 9 ;Ddsf] k"0f{ ;ª\Vof x'G5. 4. olb lbOPsf] ;ª\Vof 10 sf] u'0ffª\s (Multiples of 10) 5 eg] bzdnj laGb' afofFtkm{ ;5{ / bzsf] 3ftfª\s 3gfTds x'G5, h:t} M 600000 sf] j}1flgs ;ª\s]tg 6×105 x'G5. 5. olb lbOPsf] ;ª\Vof 1 eGbf sd ePdf bzdnj laGb' bfofFtkm{ hfG5 / Power 10 sf] dfg C0ffTds x'G5, h:t} M 0.00006 sf] j}1flgs ;ª\s]t 06×10-5 x'G5. d]l6«s pk;u{ -Metric prefix_ k|Zg M tkfO{Fn] gfksf PsfOx¿ ¿kfGt/0f ubf{ s'g cª\sn] u'0fg ug]{ jf efu ug]{ egL s;/L 7Dofpg'x'G5 < kilo - x 1000 Hecto - x 100 Deca - x 10 Meter - Gram Deci - Litre 1/10 Centi - 1/100 Milli - 1/1000 PsfOnfO{ j|mdzM10 n] u'0fg ubf{ d]l6«s gfk 7'nf] PsfOdf JoSt x'g] / 10 n] efu ubf{ d]l6«s gfk ;fgf] PsfOdf JoSt ePsf] b]vfOPsf] 5, h:t}M Ps lsnf]u|fd (1 kilogram) = 1000 g = 103g x'G5. To:t} u/L 1 ldlnu|fd 10-3 mg x'G5. ;fgf tyf 7'nf gfksf PsfO;“u hf]l8g] pk;u{x¿sf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿ k|of]u x'g] pk;u{sf] k|of]u x'g] pk;u{sf ;fgf] gfk 7'nf] gfk pbfx/0f pbfx/0f cf}ifwLsf] dfq 500 ldlnu|fd l;lnG8/df el/Psf] 14.5 lsnf]u|fd UofF;sf] lk08 dflg;sf] 17-181 dfOj|mf]ld6/ g]kfnsf] cg'dflgt 83,000 d]ufjf6 skfnsf] Jof; hnljB't\ Ifdtf dflysf] tflnsfdf 7'nf] kl/df0f / ;fgf] kl/df0fsf gfkx¿nfO{ d]l6«s k|0ffnLdf JoSt ul/Psf] 5. h;df ;fgf] gfksf] OsfOsf] cfufl8 k|of]u ePsf ldnL, dfOj|mf] tyf 7'nf] gfksf PsfOsf] cufl8 k|of]u ePsf lsnf], d]uf cflb d]l6«s pk;u{ (Metric prefix) x'g\. 7'nf] tyf ;fgf] gfksf lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 11 nflu k|of]u x'g] d]l6«s pk;u{x¿nfO{ tnsf] tflnsfdf b]vfOPsf] 5 M dlN6kN; -multiples_ k|]mS;g;\ -fractions_ pk;u{ ;ª\s]t u'0ffª\s pk;u{ ;ª\s]t u'0ffª\s (Multiplier) (Multiplier) deca da or D 101 deci d 10-1 hecto h 102 centi c 10-2 kilo k 103 milli m 10-3 mega M 106 micro μ 10-6 giga G 109 nano n 10-9 tera T 1012 pico p 10-12 s]xL ;fgf tyf 7'nf gfkx¿ o'Sofl/cf]6\;sf] ;fOh 10-4 b]lv 10 mm ;Dd, k|f]sfl/cf]6;sf] ;fOh 10-6 b]lv 10-4 μm ;Dd, Pp6f c0f'sf] ;fOh 10-9 nm, Pp6f k/df0f'sf] ;fOh 10-10 nm, k|sf;sf] ult 3×108 m/s, k[YjLsf] lk08 6×1024 kg, / ;"o{sf] lk08 2×1030 kg x'G5. k|ZgM 1 gfgf];]s]G8df slt ;]s]G8 x'G5 xf]nf < 1.8 Go"gtd gfksf] dxŒj (Importance of least count) lrq 1.18 lrqdf :6kjfr, 5f]6f] :s]n / k|f]6\ofS6/ b]vfOPsf] 5. oL pks/0fx¿ s'g s'g ef}lts kl/df0f dfkgdf k|of]u ul/G5 < oL pks/0faf6 dfkg ug{ ;lsg] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] kl/df0fsf] dfg slt x'G5 < 5nkmn u/L lbOPsf] tflnsf k"/f ug{'xf];\ M 12 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  j|m=; pks/0fsf] gfd ef}lts kl/df0f dfkgdf k|of]u x'g] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] kl/df0f 1. :s]n nDafO 0.1 cm = 1 mm 2. :6kjfr 3. Kf|f]6\ofS6/ ljleGg v]ns'b k|ltof]lutfdf :6k jfr k|of]u ul/G5. pbfx/0fsf nflu ;o ld6/ bf}8 k|lt:kwf{df klxnf], bf];|f] 5'6\ofpg :6kafrsf] k|of]u ul/G5. :6kjfraf6 klxnf], bf];|f] v]nf8L 5'6\ofpg 0.01 ;]s]G8 ;do k|of]u ul/G5. h'g 1 ;]s]G8sf] 100 efusf] 1 efu xf] jf 1 ;]s]G8 xf]. 100 oxfF 0.01 ;]s]G8nfO{ l8lh6n :6kjfrsf] Go"gtd gfk elgG5. To:t} u/L sfkLsf] df]6fO 1.2 cm eP pks/0fsf] Go"gtd gfk 0.1cm jf 1 mm xf]. o; k|sf/ s'g} klg pks/0faf6 lng ;lsg] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] kl/df0fnfO{ pSt pks/0fsf] Go"gtd gfk elgG5. dfkgdf k|of]u ul/g] pks/0fcg';f/ Go"gtd gfk klg km/s km/s x'G5. 1. :s]n M Scale :s]ndf b'O{ lsl;dsf] dfkgsf] gfk /flvPsf] x'G5. Pp6f OGrdf x'G5 eg] csf]{ cm df x'G5. :s]ndf 1cm nfO{ 10 ;fgf v08df ljefhg ul/Psf] x'G5. 1 :s]nsf] Go"gtd gfk = cm = 0.1 cm = 1mm 10 To;sf/0f :s]nsf] Go"gtd gfk 1mm x'G5. 2. k|f]6\ofS6/df 1 b]lv 10 l8u|L;Dd 10 efu ;;fgf v08x¿ x'G5g\. 1 v08n] 1º hgfpF5 10 jf k|f]6\ofS6/sf] ;"Idtf = = 1º x'G5. 10 o;k|sf/ xfdLn] k|of]u ug]{ pks/0fcg';f/ Go"gtd gfk klg km/s km/s x'G5, h:t}M xft] 38Lsf] Go"gtd gfk ;]s]G8 x'G5 eg] l8lh6n :6kjfrsf] ;]lG6;]s]G8 x'G5. j}1flgs cWoogdf Go"gtd gfksf] dxŒj w]/} x'G5. o;sf] dbtn] dfkg ;xL tl/sfn] ug{ ;lsG5. tYofª\sx¿sf] ;ª\sng / ljZn]if0f u/L lgisif{df k'Ug ;lsG5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 13 lj|mofsnfk 1.5 tkfO{“sf] ljBfnosf] k|of]uzfnfdf ePsf] lgDgfg';f/ pks/0f cjnf]sg u/L tflnsf k'/f ug'{xf];\ M j|m=;= pks/0f lrq Go"gtd gfk 1. Pld6/ 2. Eff]N6ld6/ 3. d]hl/ª l;lnG8/ 1.9 cf};t gfksf] cfjZostf (Importance of taking average in measurement) lj|mofsnfk 1.6 Pp6f l6gsf] kftfnfO{ e'O“df c8\ofpg'xf];\. pSt l6gsf] kftfdf kg]{ u/L u'Rrf jf ;fgf] 9'ª\ufnfO{ 2 ld6/dflyaf6 v;fNg'xf];\. u'Rrf jf 9'ª\ufnfO{+ v;fNbf l6gsf] kftfdf k'Ug nfUg] ;do clen]v /fVg'xf];\. cfkm"n] u/]sf] k|of]unfO{ lgDgcg';f/sf] tflnsfdf ePcg';f/ eg{'xf];. j|m=;= 9'ª\uf÷u'Rrf Kfftfdf 7f]lsg nfu]sf] ;do cf};t ;do 1. Kflxnf] k6s v;fNbf 1.2 S 2. bf];|f] k6s v;fNbf (1.2+...+...)/3 3. t];|f] k6s v;fNbf 9'ª\uf jf u'RrfnfO{ 2 ld6/ dflyaf6 v;fn]/ kftfdf 7f]lsg cfpg] ;do clen]v ubf{ ltg} k6sdf ;do km/s km/s cfpg ;S5. o;/L ;do dfkg ubf{ Ps} k6sdf ;xL x'Fb}g. o;nfO{ b'O{ tLg k6s bf]xf]¥ofpFbf o;sf] cf};tn] ;xL dfkg lbG5. j}1flgs cWoogdf ;fgf] ;fgf] kl/df0f dfkgdf ;d:of cfpF5. t;y{ ;xL kl/df0f k|fKt ug{ dfkg sfo{nfO{ bf]xf]¥ofO{ t]x]¥ofO{, cf};t lgsfNbf ;xL dfkg k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5. o;/L dfkg sfo{ ubf{ k6s k6s pxL lsl;dsf] kl/0ffd k|fKt ePdf o;nfO{ lk|;fOh -Precise) gfk elgG5. 14 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( cEof; 1. ;xL pQ/df lrx\g nufpg'xf];\ M -s_ e]6]g/L k];f lj1fgsf] s'g zfvf;“u ;DalGwt 5 < -c_ ef}lts lj1fg -cf_ hLj lj1fg -O_ /;fog lj1fg -O{_ e" lj1fg -v_ Johann Gregor Mendel s'g lj1fgsf] If]q;“u ;DalGwt 5g\ < -c_ ef}lts lj1fg -cf_ /;fog lj1fg -O_ hLj lj1fg -O{_ vuf]n lj1fg -u_ :s]nsf] k|of]u u/L gfKbf lnOg] Go'gtd gfk s'g xf] < -c_ ;]lG6ld6/ -cf_ ldlnld6/ -O_ 8]l;ld6/ -O{_ ld6/ -3_ 0.000024 cª\snfO{ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tdf s;/L n]lvG5 < -c_ 2 × 10-5 -cf_ 24 ×10–5 -O_ 0.24 ×10-6 -O{_ 2.4 ×10-5 -ª_ Giga prefix sf] dfg slt x'G5 < -c_ 109 -cf_ 1010 -O_ 1011 -O_ 1012 2. tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -s_ j}1flgs cWoog s;/L ul/G5, n]Vg'xf];\. -v_ lj1fgsf If]qx¿sf] ;"rL agfpg'xf];\. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 15  -u_ lj1fgsf If]qx¿sf] cGt/;DaGwnfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug'{xf];\. -3_ j}1flgs k4ltdf k|of]usf] s:tf] dxŒj x'G5 < pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug{'xf];\. -ª_ lj1fgsf] k|o]fufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpg'kg]{ ;'/Iffsf pkfox¿sf] ;"rL agfpg'xf];\. -r_ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tgsf] kl/efiff n]Vg'xf];\. -5_ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tg JoSt ubf{ s'g s'g s'/fdf Wofg lbg'k5{, n]Vg'xf];\. -h_ d]l6«s pk;u{ lsg cfjZos 5 < pbfx/0f;lxt aofg ug{'xf];\. -em_ Go"gtd gfk 5f]6s/Ldf aofg ug{'xf];\. -`_ lbOPsf] ;ª\VofnfO{ j}1flgs ;ª\s]tgdf JoSt ug'{xf];\ M -c_ 1230000 -cf_ 0.00042 -O_ 0.00000001 -O{_ 300000000 16 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  @ ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f (Classification of Living Beings) tn lbOPsf hLjx¿sf ;DaGwdf 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ M af“b/ cldaf AofS6]l/of Rofp lrq 2.1 hLjx¿ 5nkmnsf k|Zgx¿ -c_ s] oL hLjx¿sf sf]ifdf s]xL leGgtf x'G5 xf]nf < -cf_ kf]if0f k|lj|mofsf cfwf/df s'g s'g hLjx¿ ;dfg / s'g s'g km/s xf]nfg\ < -O_ k|hgg k|lj|mofsf cfwf/df logLx¿lar s] leGgtf xf]nf < -O{_ oL hLjx¿nfO{ sd ljsl;taf6 a9L ljsl;tsf] j|mddf s;/L ldnfpg ;lsG5 < xfd|f j/k/ ljleGg k|sf/sf hLjx¿ kfOG5g\. zf/Ll/s agf]6, af;:yfg / zf/Ll/s k|lj|mofsf cfwf/df s]xL hgfj/x¿ ;dfg x'G5g\ eg] s]xL leGg x'G5g\, h:t}M s'g} hLjx¿ kfgLdf a:5g\ t s'g} hldgdf a:5g\. xl/ts0f ePsf jg:kltx¿ :jkf]ifs x'G5g\ eg] cGo hLjx¿ k/kf]ifs x'G5g\. cldaf, kf/fd]l;odnufotsf ;"Id hLjx¿sf] hLjg k|lj|mof ;fdfGo lsl;dsf] x'G5 eg] :tgwf/L hLjx¿df ljsl;t hLjg k|lj|mof x'G5. logLx¿df kfOg] ljz]iftfx¿ zf/Ll/s agf]6, vfgf vfg] k|lj|mof, k|hgg / j|md ljsf; cflbsf cfwf/df ;hLjnfO{ ljleGg ;d"xdf 56\ofpg ;lsG5. Pp6} k|s[lt / u'0f ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ Pp6} ;d"x agfO{ /flvG5. o;/L ;hLjx¿nfO{ ltgLx¿df kfOg] ;dfg / c;dfGf ljz]iftfx¿sf cfwf/df ;d"x / pk;d"xdf ljefhg ul/g] k|lj|mofnfO{ ;hLjsf] juL{s/0f (classification of living beings) elgG5. 2.1 hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0fsf] dxŒj (Importance of classification of living beings) ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0fsf cWoogaf6 lgDglnlvt tYox¿ yfxf kfpg dbt u5{ M -s_ hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0fn] j|mdljsf;;DaGwL tYox¿ kQf nufpg dbt u5{. -v_ o;sf] dbtaf6 ;hLjx¿sf af/]df 5f]6f] ;dodf g} cWoog ug{ ;lsG5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 17 -u_ o;n] ubf{ ;hLjx¿sf] j}1flgs gfdfs/0f ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5. -3_ o;n] ;hLjx¿sf] k|fs[lts ;DaGwsf af/]df JofVof ub{5. -ª_ o;n] ;hLjx¿sf] cWoognfO{ ;lhnf] / j}1flgs agfpF5. 2.2 b'O{kbLo gfdfs/0f k|0ffnL (Binomial system of nomenclature) lrqdf b]vfOPsf s'g s'g hLjx¿ Ps csf{df ldNbfh'Nbf 5g\, 5nkmn u/L tnsf] tflnsf eg'{xf];\ M af3 l;+x uwf 3f]8f abfd cfn' sfutL ;'Gtnf lrq 2.2 jg:klt / hgfj/x¿ j|m=;= hLjsf] gfd glhssf] ldNg] csf]{ hLj != af3 @= cfn' #= ;'Gtnf $= 3f]8f hLjsf] juL{s/0f ug]{ k|lj|mofdf Carolus Linnaeus k|d'v b]g 5. pgn] ;hLjx¿nfO{ hGt' hut\\ (Animal Kingdom) / jg:klt hut\ (Plant Kingdom) u/L b'O{ hut\df ljefhg u/]. ;fy} ;hLjx¿sf] gfdfs/0f ug]{ Pp6f vfsf (Frame Work) klg tof/ u/]. o;/L ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f tyf j}1flgs gfdfs/0f ;DaGwL lj:t[t ¿kdf cWoog ug]{ klxnf] JolSt Linnaeus ePsfn] pgnfO{ Father of Modern Taxonomy elgG5. 18 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( Carolous Linnaeus n] hGt' tyf jg:kltsf] gfdfs/0f ubf{ Nofl6g efiffsf b'O{c]f6f zAbsf] k|of]u u/]sf lyP. h:fdf klxnf] Genus (Generic name) / bf];|f] Species (Specific name) /x]sf 5g\. o;/L ;hLjx¿nfO{ h]g]l/s / :k]l;lkms b'O{cf]6f gfdaf6 gfdfs/0f ug]{ k|lj|mofnfO{ b'O{kbLo gfdfs/0f k|0ffnL elgG5. of] j}1flgs gfdfs/0f k|0ffnL xf]. o; k|0ffnLcg';f/ gfdfs/0f ubf{ Genus / species sf] k|of]u ul/G5. Genus sf] klxnf] cIf/nfO{ Capital / species sf] klxnf] cIf/nfO{ Small letter df n]lvG5. Common Name Generic Name Specific Name tf]/L (Mustard) Brassica campestris s]/fp (Pea) Pissum sativum ds} (Maze) Zea mays wfg (Paddy) Oryza sativa cfn' (Potato) Solanum tuberosum af3 (Tiger) Panthera tigris dflg; (Man) Homo sapiens la/fnf] -Cat) Felis catus s's'/ -Dog) Canis lupus ufO{ (Cow) Bos taurus l;+x (Lion) Panthera leo Genus: ;a}eGbf a9L u'0fx¿ ldNg] k|hfltx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ lhGf; (Genus) elgG5. juL{s/0f ubf{ o;nfO{ Family eGbf tn / :k]l;heGbf dfly /flvG5, h:t}M lhg; Soflg; (Canis) cGtu{t s's'/, :ofn, Ajf;f] cflb h:tf hgfj/x¿ kb{5g\. Species: k|foM Ps} lsl;dsf ljz]iftfx¿ ePsf ;hLjx¿sf] ;d"x h'g Pscfk;df k|hgg ug]{ Ifdtf /fV5g\, To;nfO{ :k]l;h elgG5. of] Taxonomy sf] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] PsfO xf]. ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f ubf{ ltgLx¿nfO{ ljleGg txdf ljefhg ul/Psf] x'G5. ;hLjx¿df kfOg] u'0fx¿sf cfwf/df Kingdom , Phylum, Class , Order, Family, Genus / Species u/L ljleGg txdf juL{s/0f ul/G5, h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ rf6{df b]vfpg ;lsG5 M lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 19 Plantee Kingdom Animalia Tracheophytes Division/Phylum Chordata Angiosperm Class Mammalia Brassicales Order Primates Brassicaceae Family Hominidie Brassica Genus Homo Species sapiens Campestris tf]/L lrq 2.3 juL{s/0fsf txx¿ dflg; juL{s/0fsf] o; rf6{df hlt dflylt/ uof] w]/} ;hLjx¿ ;d]l6G5g eg] tNnf] txlt/ cfpFbf ljz'4 lglZrt k|hfltnfO{ dfq ;d]6\5, h:t}M dflg;sf] juL{s/0fsf] ljleGg txsf] cWoog ubf{ hut\ (kingdom) df ;a} hgfj/x¿ -d]?b08 ePsf / gePsf, Pssf]ifLo / ax'sf]ifLo cflb_ kb{5g\ eg] hut\cGtu{t kg]{ kmfOnd sf]8]{6f (Chordata) df 9f8 ePsf hgfj/x¿ dfq kb{5g\. o;}u/L ju{ -class_ Dofd]lnof (Mammalia) df :tgwf/L hgfj/x¿ dfq kb{5g\. o;sf ;fy} u/L c8{/ k|fOd]6\; (order primates) df afFb/, uf]l/Nnf, luaG; (Gibbons), n]d:f{ (lemurs) / dflg; kb{5g\. c8{/cGt{utsf Family hominidie df lrDkfGhL, uf]l/Nnf, dflg;, cf]/fªuf]6fg\ cflb kb{5 eg] juL{s/0fsf] tNnf] tx h]g; homo cGtu{t s]jn dflg; dfq kb{5g\. o;/L juL{s/0f ubf{ dflyNnf] txn] w]/} hLjx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 eg] ;a}eGbf tNnf] txn] Pp6f dfq k|hflt ;d]6\g] ub{5. o;af6 j|mdzM tNnf]af6 dflyNnf] txdf hfFbf Pscsf]{df ;DaGw ePsf] k'li6 x'G5. 2.3 kf“r hut\ juL{s/0f k|0ffnL (Five kingdom system of classification) lj|mofsnfk 2.1 b'O{ hut\ juL{s/0f k|0ffnLcg';f/ xl/ts0f gePsf] Rofp / xl/ts0f ePsf] plgp“ b'j}nfO{ km"n gkm'Ng] la?jfdf juL{s/0f ul/Psf] 5. o; lsl;dsf] juL{s/0fn] logLx¿sf ;a} ljz]iftfx¿ ;d]6\g ;s]sf] jf g;s]sf] ;DaGwdf 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ / sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\. ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f ug{sf nflu ljleGg j}1flgsx¿n] km/s km/s juL{s/0f k|0ffnLsf] l;kmfl/; u/]sf 5g\. xfn b'O{ hut\ k|0ffnLeGbf kfFr hut\ k|0ffnL a9L k|rngdf cfPsf] kfOG5. b'Ohut k|0ffnLsf d"Vo sldsdhf]/L o; k|sf/sf 5g\ M 1= k|f]sfl/of]6\; / o'Sofl/of]6\; ;hLjnfO{ k|i6;Fu 5'6\ofPsf] 5}g. 2= Pssf]ifLo / ax'sf]ifLo ;hLjnfO{ 5'6\ofPsf] 5}g. 3= k|sfz ;+Zn]if0f ug{ ;Sg] PNuL / ug{ g;sg] kmGhfOnfO{ k|:6;Fu 5'6\ofPsf] 5}g. 4= ;a} ;hLjx¿nfO{ ;d]6\g ;s]sf] 5}g. 20 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( b'O{ hut\ k|0ffnLsf sdL sdhf]/Lx¿ x6fpg / ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0fnfO{ a9L ;fGble{s / j}1flgs agfpg kfFr hut\ k|0ffnL] k|rngdf cfPsf] kfOG5. KffFr hut\ juL{s/0f k|0ffnLsf] cjwf/0f ;g\ 1969 df cd]l/sL 6ofS;f]gf]ld:6 (American Taxonomist) /f]af6{ Pr lj6]s/ -Robert Harding Whitaker_ n] NofPsf x'g\. o; k|0fnLn] a9LeGbf a9L ;hLjx¿nfO{ juL{s/0fdf ;d]6\g] k|of; u/]sf] 5. 2.4 kf“r hut juL{s/0f k|0ffnLsf cfwf/x¿ (Bases of Five kingdom method of classification) ;hLjx¿ sf]ifsf] lsl;d k|f]Sofl/cf]l6s o'Sofl/cf]l6s -1_ hut\ df]g]/f zf/Ll/s ;ª\u7g Pssf]ifLo ax'sf]ifLo -2_ hut\ k|f]l6:6f sf]if leQfsf] pkl:ylt sf]if leQf ePsf] sf]if leQf gePsf kf]if0f ljlw k/kf]ifs :jkf]ifs k/kf]ifs -ljR5]bs_ pkef]Stf -3_ hut\ KnfG6L -4_ hut\ kmGhfO{ -5_ hut\ Plgd]lnof ;Dk"0f{ ;hLjx¿nfO{ sf]ifsf] lsl;dsf cfwf/df b'O{ efudf 5'6\ofOof]. k|f]Sofl/cf]l6s sf]if ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ hut\ df]g]/fdf /flvPsf] 5. afFsL ;hLjx¿nfO{ sf]ifsf ;ª\Vof -Pssf]ifLo÷ax'sf]ifLo_ sf] cfwf/df Ps sf]ifLo ;hLjx¿nfO{ hut\ k|f]l6:6fdf /flvPsf] 5. afFsL ax'sf]ifLo ;hLx¿nfO{ sf]ifleQfsf] pkl:ylt / cg'kl:yltsf cfwf/df 5'6ofPsf] 5. sf]ifleQf ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ kf]if0f ljlwsf cfwf/df k'gM b'O{ efudf afFl8Psf] 5. :jkf]ifs / sf]if leQf ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ hut\ KnfG6L t/ k/kf]ifs sf]if leQf ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ hut\ kmghfO{df /flvPsf] 5. o;}u/L sf]if leQf gePsf ;hLjx¿ h'g kfl/l:ylts k|0ffnLdf pkef]Stfsf] e"ldsf v]n]sf x'G5g\ ltgnfO{ hut\ Plgd]lnofdf /flvG5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 21 sf]ifleQfo'St kmGhfO{ / sf]ifleQf laxLg Plgd]lnof b'j} k/kf]ifs eP klg logLx¿ kfl/l:ylts k|0ffnLdf km/s km/s e"ldsfdf x'G5g\. kmGhfO{n] ljR5]bs t/ Plgd]lnofn] pkef]Stfsf] e"ldsf v]Nb5 eg] sf]ifleQf ePsf :jkf]ifs pTkfbssf] e"ldsfdf x'G5g\. o;/L kfFr hutLo juL{s/0f k|0ffnLdf ;hLjx¿sf] ljefhg ul/Psf] 5. Basis of classification Kingdom 1. Types of cell - Prokyotic Monera 2. Structure of the body - Unicellular Protists 3. Presence of cell ueall, Autothraphic, Producer Plante 4. Presence of cell wall, Heterotrophic decomposer Fungi 5. Absence of cell wall, Heterotrophic, consumer Animelia o;/L kfFr hutLo juL{s/0f k|0ffnLdf cfwf/sf ¿kdf sf]ifsf] agf]6, zf/Ll/s agf]6, sf]if leQfsf] kl:ylt, kf]if0f ljlw / kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf e"ldsfnfO{ cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5. 1= hut\ M df]g]/f (Kingdom : Monera) df]g]/f hut\cGtu{t ;a} k|f]Sofl/cf]l6s (Prokyarotic) ;"Id ;hLjx¿ Kfb{5g\. ltgLx¿sf ljz]iftf lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M -s_ df]g]/f hLjx¿ k|f]Sofl/cf]l6s ;hLjx¿ x'g\. -v_ logLx¿sf sf]ifdf lglzrt Go'lSno; (definite nucleus) x'Fb}g / h]g]l6s d6]l/onsf] ¿kdf l8clS;/fOjf] Go'lSns Pl;8 -Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) x'G5. lrq 2.4 JofS6]l/of -u_ logLx¿ k|lts"n cj:yfdf klg afFRg ;S5g\. -3_ logLx¿ :jkf]lift (Autotrophic), k/hLjL (Parasite), :ofk|f]6«lks (Saproptrophic) jf l;Dafof]l6s (Symbiotic) x'G5g\. l;Dafof]l6s ;hLjx¿ k/:k/df cGt/;DalGwt x'G5g\ / ;femf hLjg latfpF5g\. df]g]/f hut\df cfls{AofS6]l/of -Archaebacteria_ o'AofS6]l/of -Eubacteria_ / ;fogf]AofS6]l/of -Cyanobacteria_ u/L tLg lsl;dsf hLjx¿ kb{5g\. cfls{AofS6]l/of ;a}eGbf k|frLg AofS6]l/of x'g\. logLx¿ w]/} tftf], g'lgnf] / bnbn (marshy place_ h:tf k|lts"n jf;:yfg -extreme habitat_ x¿df kfOG5g\. logLx¿df xl/ts0f x'G5. logLx¿ :jkf]ifs x'G5g\, h:t} M xfOk/yd{; -Hyperthermus_, kfO/f]nf]a; -Pyrolobus_ cflb. o'AofS6]l/of jf:tljs AofS6]l/of (true bacteria) x'g\. logLx¿sf] aflx/L cfj/0f sf]if 22 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff (  leQf k]lK68f]UnfOsg -peptidoglycan_ n] ag]sf] x'G5. logLx¿n] km\nfh]nf (flagella_ sf dbtn] rfn b]vfpF5g\, h:t}M /fOhf]laod, Snf]:6«f]l8od cflb. ;fogf] AofS6]l/ofnfO{ An''lu|g cNuL klg elgG5. logLx¿df klg xl/ts0f x'G5. logLx¿ :jkf]ifs x'G5g\, h:t} M g:6s, Pgflagf, :kfO?lngf cflb. 2= hut\ M k|f]l6:6f (Kingdom: Protista) k|f]l6:6f hut\cGtu{t Pssf]ifLo o'lUngf ;hLjx¿ Kfb{5g\. logLx¿df kfOg] ljz]iftfx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M -s_ o; hut\df kg]{ hLjx¿ cldaf o'sfl/of]l6s x'G5g\. logLx¿sf] sf]ifdf Go'lSno; x'G5. -v_ o; hut\df kg]{ k|fo M hLjx¿ Pssf]ifLo x'G5g\. sf]ifsf cjojx¿ (cell organelles) nfO{ kf/fd]l;og sf]if lemNnLn] 9fs]]sf] x'G5. lrq 2.5 Pssf]ifLo hLjx¿ -u_ logLx¿sf z/L/df gSsnL v'6\6f -pseudopodia_, l;lnof, ˆnfh]nf x'G5 h:fsf] dbtn] lxF88'n u5{g\. -3_ s]xL Pssf]ifLo o'sfl/of]6;\x¿ k/hLjL x'G5g\. logLx¿n] cf>osf]if (host cell) af6 vfgf ;f];]/ lnG5g\. Zooplankton x¿ k/kf]ifs x'G5g\. -ª_ logLx¿sf] k|hgg cd}y'lgs / d}y'lgs b'j} tl/sfaf6 x'G5. -r_ o; hut\sf pbfx/0fx¿ cldaf, o'lUngf, kf/fd]l;od cflb x'g\. s]xL k|f]l6:6fcGtu{t kg]{ hLjx¿sf] sf]if hGt'sf]if;Fu ldNg] vfnsf] x'G5. o:tf hLjnfO{ hGt' h:tf k|f]l6:6f elgG5, h:t} M cldaf, kf/fd]l;od cflb. s]xL hLjx¿sf] sf]if jg:klt sf]if;Fu ldNg] vfnsf] x'G5. o:tf sf]if x'g] hLjx¿nfO{ jg:klt h:tf k|f]l6:6f elgG5. logLx¿sf] sf]ifdf xl/ts0f x'G5 To;}n] logLx¿n] k|sfz ;+Zn]if0f u5{g\, h:t} M o'lUngf, 8fo6D; cflb. s]xL hLjx¿sf] sf]if kmGhfO{;Fu ldNg] x'G5. o:tf hLjx¿nfO{ kmGhfO{ h:tf k|f]l6:6f elgG5, h:t} M :nfOd df]N8 -slime mold_, jf6/ df]N8 -water mold_ cflb. 3= hut\ M kmGhfO{ (Kingdom: Fungi) o; hut\cGt{ut 9';L, Rofp h:tf ;hLjx¿Kfb{5g\. logLx¿ ax'sf]ifLo ljR5]bs (multicellular decomposer) x'g\. o; hut\df kg]{ hLjx¿sf ljz]iftf lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M -s_ kmGhfO{ hut\cGtu{tsf hLjx¿ xl/ts0f gePsf Pssf]ifLo -lo:6_ tyf ax'sf]ifLo ;hLjx¿ -Rofp, 9';L_ Kfb{5g\. lrq 2.6 Rofp lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 23  -v_ oL ;hLjx¿ Kf|foh;f] Saprotrophic x'G5g\ cyf{t\ logLx¿n] ;8]un]sf÷s'lxPsf h}ljs j:t'af6 vfgf k|fKt u5{g\. -u_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ yfNjfO8 (thalloid) x'G5 cyf{t\ logLx¿sf] h/f, kft, 8fF7 5'6\l6Psf x'Fb}gg\. -3_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ dfO;]lnodaf6 ag]sf] x'G5. -ª_+ logLx¿df cd}y'lgs / d}y'lgs b'j} tl/sfaf6 k|hgg x'G5. -r_ logLx¿n] UnfOsf]h]gsf ¿kdf vfgfnfO{ ;~ro u5{g\. -5_ Pssf]ifLo hLj lo:6 kmd]{G6];g k|lj|mofdf k|of]u ul/G5. h:t} M cNsf]xn agfpg / a]s/L pTkfbgdf k|of]u ul/G5. -h_ o; hut\sf pbfx/0fx¿ Do's/ (Mucor), lo:6 (yeast), Rofp cflb x'g\. kf]if0f k|fKt ug]{ cfwf/df kmGhfO{ tLg lsl;dsf 5g\ h'g lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M -c_ :ofk|f]6«f]lkms kmGhfO{ (Saprotrophic fungi) M logLx¿n] d/]/ s'lxPsf h}ljs j:t'x¿af6 cfˆgf] kf]if0f k|fKt u5{g\, h:t}M Do's/, Rofp, k]lGfl;lnod -penicillium_ cflb. -cf_ k/hLjL kmGhfO{ (Parasitic fungi) M logLx¿n] cGo ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/af6 kf]if0f k|fKt u5{g\, h:t} M klS;lgof -puccinia_, 6\oflk|mgf -Taphrina_ cflb. -O_ l;Dafof]l6s kmGhfO{ (Symbiotic fungi) M o:tf kmGhfO{ c¿ hLjx¿;Fu cGt/cfl>t ;DaGwdf afFR5g\. o:tf] ;DaGwdf b'j} hLjx¿ Ps csf{af6 nfeflGjt x'G5g\. cNuL / kmGhfO{ cGt/cfl>t ;DaGwdf afFRg'nfO{ nfOs]g elgG5. h;df kmGhfO{n] cNuLnfO{ cf>o lbG5 / kfgL pknAw u/fpF5 eg] cNuLn] kmGhfO{sf nflu sfaf]{xfO8«]6 agfOlbG5. 24 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( kl/of]hgf sfo{ 9';Lsf] cWoog (Study of mucor) -c_ kfp/f]6L jf /f]6Lsf] ;fgf] 6'j|mf lng'xf];\. -cf_ pSt 6'j|mfnfO{ k|sfz gk'Ug] cf]l;nf] 7fp“df /fVg'xf];\. -O_ b'O{ tLg lbgkl5 /f]6Ldf ePsf] kl/jt{g cjnf]sg ug{'xf];\. -O{_ kfp/f]6L jf /f]6Ldf ePsf] ;]tf] skf; h:tf] agf]6nfO{ 9';L elGfG5. pSt 9';LnfO{ ;"Id bz{soGqdf /fvL cjnf]sg ug{'xf];\. -p_ cjnf]sgkl5 ;kmf lrq agfO{ sIffdf k|:t't ug{'xf];\ / o;sf] agfj6sf af/]df 5nkmn ug'{xf];\. cEof; 1= tn lbOPsf k|Zgsf] ;xL ljsNkdf uf]nf] 3]/f -)_ nufpg'xf];\ M -s_ An'lu|g cNuL s'g hut\cGtu{t kb{5 < -c_ df]g]/f -cf_ k|f]l6:6f -O_ kmGhfO{ -O{_ KNffG6L -v_ s'g sf/0fn] o'lUngf c¿ hGt'eGbf km/s 5 < -c_ xl/ts0f kfOg] x'gfn] -cf_ Pssf]ifLo x'gfn] -O_ kfgLdf kfOg] x'gfn] -O{_ c¿ hLjdf cfl>t x'gfn] -u_ Binomial System of Nomenclature sf k|jt{s sf] x'g\ < -c_ Carolus Linnaeous -cf_ R. H. Whitaker -O_ Chatton -O{_ Robert Koch -3_ sf]if definite nucleus gx'g] hLj s'g] hut\df k5{ < -c_ df]g]/f -cf_ k|f]l6:6f -O_ kmGhfO{ -O{_ KnfG6L -ª_ tn lbOPsf dWo] k|f]sfl/of]l6s ;"Id hLjsf] pbfx/0f s'g xf] < -c_ chf]6f]AofS6/ -cf_ o'lUngf -O_ lo:6 -O{_ cldaf 2= sf/0f lbg'xf];\ M -s_ hLjx¿sf] b'O{ hut\ k|0ffnLeGbf kfFr hut\ k|0ffnL a9L pko'St / j}1flgs 5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 25  -v_ kmGhfO{ hut\cGtu{t kg]{ ;hLjnfO{ :ofk|f]6«k klg elgG5. -u_ df]g]/f hut\df kg]{ hLjx¿eGbf k|f]l6:6fcGtu{t kg]{ hLjx¿ a9L ljsl;t dflgG5g\. 3= km/s n]Vg'xf];\ M -s_ k|f]Sofl/of]6\; / o'jol/cf]6\; -v_ ;hLjx¿sf] b'O{ hut\ k|0ffnL / kfFr hut\ k|0ffnL -u_ df]g]/f / k|f]l6:6f -3_ k|f]l6:6f / kmGhfO{ -ª_ lo:6 / Rofp -r_ h]g; / :k]l;h -5_ hut\ / kmfOnd -h_ Rofp / AofS6]l/of 4= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -s_ b'O{kbLo gfdfs/0f k|0ffnL eg]sf] s] xf] < -v_ dflg;, s]/fp, tf]/L / lrt'jfsf] j}1flgs gfd n]Vg'xf];\. -u_ lhg; / :k]l;h eg]sf s] x'g\ < :ki6 kfg'{xf];\. -3_ kfFr hut\ k|0ffnLsf] juL{s/0f rf6{ agfO{ k|To]ssf b'O{ b'O{cf]6f pbfx/0f lbg'xf];\. -ª_ df]g]/f hut\sf ljz]iftfx¿ pbfx/0f;lxt k|:t't ug'{xf];\. -r_ k|f]l6:6f hut\sf ljz]iftfnfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt n]Vg'xf];\. -5_ kmGhfO{ hut\sf ljz]iftf pbfx/0f;lxt k|:6 kfg'{xf];\. -h_ lbOPsf hLjx¿sf hut\sf] gfd n]Vg'xf];\ M Eofs'/, cldaf, o'lUngf, kf/fd]l;od, KnfHdf]l8od, An'lu|g PNuL, P6f]AofS6/, Rofp, Do's/ -em_ hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0fsf ljleGg txx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGwnfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt k|:6 kfg'{xf];\. -`_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog ug{'xf];\ / oL ;hLjx¿ s'g s'g hut\df kb{5g\ 5'6\ofpg'xf];\. k|To]ssf tLg tLgcf]6f ljz]iftf klg n]Vg'xf];\. 26 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff (  # (Mushroom) Rofp lbOPsf lrq cjnf]sg u/L 5nkmn ug{'xf];\ M lrq 3.1 ljleGg lsl;dsf Rofpx¿ -c_ Rofp s:tf] 7fp“df pld|G5 < -cf_ Rofp lsg xl/of] gePsf] xf]nf < -O_ s] ;a} Rofp vfg of]Uo x'G5g\ < -O{_ Rofp v]tL lsg ul/G5 < Jfiff{ofddf df6fsf] l9:sf], uf]a/, ?vsf af]j|mfnufotsf :yfgdf Rofp pld|Psf] b]Vg ;lsG5. Rofp Ps k|sf/sf] 9';L -fungus_ xf]. Rofpdf xl/ts0f x'Fb}g. of] d[tf]khLjL -sapro trophic_ x'G5. s]xL Rofpx¿ vfgof]Uo x'G5g\. 8Nn] Rofp, k/fn] Rofp, sGo] Rofp, uf]a|] Rofp cflb vfg of]Uo Rofpsf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\. s]xL hª\unL Rofpx¿ ljiffn' klg x'g ;S5g\. cfhef]ln Rofp v]tL cfDbfgLsf] Ps ;|f]tsf ¿kdf ljsf; x'Fb} uPsf] kfOG5. 3.1 Rofpsf] agf]6 (Structure of mushroom) Rofpsf] z/L/nfO{ dfO;]lnod / Fruiting body b'O{ efudf afFl8Psf] x'G5. o;sf] e]lh6]l6e (Vegetative) efunfO{ dfO;]lnod elgG5. of] df6fd'lg /x]sf] x'G5. dfO;]lnod dl;gf wfuf h:tf /];fx¿af6 ag]sf] x'G5 h:fnfO{ xfOkmL elgG5. dfO;]lnodn] kfgL / h}ljs vfB j:t' ;f];]/ lnG5. hldgdflysf] efunfO{ Fruiting body elgG5. of] Rofpsf] k|hgg efu -Reproductive part_ xf]. Rofpdf 8fF7 / 5ftf h:tf efu kfOn; x'G5g\. Rofpsf] 8f7nfO{ :6fOk elgG5. luN; 5ftf h:tf] dflyNnf] efunfO{ kfOn; elgG5. kfOn;sf] tNnf] efudf 8f7 kq}kq ePsf agf]6x¿ x'G5g\, To;nfO{ dfO;]lnod luN; elgG5. luN;df aLhf0f'x¿ xfOlkm -Basidiospore_ x'G5g\. lrq 3.2 Rofpsf] agf]6 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 27 3.2 Rofpsf] hLjg rj|m (Life cycle of mushroom) Rofpsf] kfOn;sf] leqL efudf ePsf] kq}kq luN; x'G5g\. jo:s Rofpsf luN;df 6«fdf, ;a xfOd]lgod / xfOd]lgod u/L tLg tx x'G5g\. ;a}eGbf aflx/L txnfO{ xfOd]lgod elgG5. o; txdf a]l;l8od / kf/fkmfOl;;\ u/L b'O{ lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿ x'G5g\. kf/fkmfOl;;\ :6]/fOn -Sterile_ x'G5. a]l;l8oddf Pp6f wgfTds :6«]g -plus strain_ / Pp6f C0ffTds :6«]g (minus strain) u/L b'O{cf]6f XofKnf]O8 Go'lSno; x'G5g\. kf/fkmfOl;; luN; Aofl;l8og xfOd]lgod ;j xfOd]lgod 6«fdf lrq 3.3 Rofpsf luN; / o;sf efux¿ tL XofKnf]O8 Go'lSno;x¿ ;+of]hg eP/ Pp6f l8Knf]O8 Go'lSno; aG5. pSt Go'lSno; ldcf]l;; ljefhg eO{ rf/cf]6f x\ofKnf]O8 Go'lSno;x¿ aGb5g\. h;dWo] b'O{cf]6f wgfTds :6]«g / b'O{cf]6f C0ffTds :6«]g x'G5g\. To;kl5 a]l;l8odsf 6'Kkfdf rf/cf]6f cf}Fnf h:tf agf]6x¿sf] ljsf; x'G5. oL agf]6nfO{ :6]l/Udf6f elgG5. To;kl5 k|To]s :6]l/Udf km'n]/ cfpF5 / x/]sdf Ps Pscf]6f x\ofKnf]O8 Go'lSno; hfG5. o;/L k|To]saf6 Ps Pscf]6f ao:s Rofp :kf]/ ;]s]08/L dfO;]lnod :kf]/ cª\s'/0f k|fOd/L dfO;]lnod lrq 3.4 Rofpsf] hLjgrj|m 28 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( a]l;l8of]:kf]/ aG5. a]l;l8of]:kf]/dWo] b'O{cf]6f wgfTds :6]«g / b'O{cf]6f C0ffTds :6«]g x'G5g\. a]l;l8of]:kf]/ kl/kSj ePkl5 :6]l/Udf6faf6 5'6\l6G5. x/]s :kf]/ cg's"n cj:yfdf cª\s'/0f eP/ k|fylds dfO;]lnod aG5. k|To]s k|fylds dfO;]lnodsf] sf]ifdf Pp6f Go'lSno; x'G5. leGbfleGb} :6«]gsf k|fylds dfO;]lnodsf] ;dfudaf6 låtLo dfO;]lnod aG5, h;df b'j} :6]«gaf6 cfPsf b'Ocf]6} Go'lSno; x'G5g\. To;}n] o;nfO{ 8fOSofl/of]l6s dfO;]lnod elgG5. låtLo dfO;]lnoddf cg's"n tfkj|md / cfb|tf ePkl5 Rofp pd|G5. ;'?df ;fgf ;fgf uf]nf] cfsf/sf] Rofp aG5. kl/kSj ePkl5 v'n]/ 5ftf cfsf/sf] aG5. Rofpsf] kfOn; d'lglt/ kfOg] xfOd]lgod kqsf] ;txdf w]/} ;ª\Vofdf aLhf0f'x¿ pTkfbg x'G5g\. tL aLhf0f' kl/kSj ePkl5 xfjfsf dfWodaf6 otfplt 5l/G5g\. cg's"n xfjf, kfgL, tfkj|md / h}ljs kbfy{ ePkl5 k|To]s aLhf0f'af6 Rofpsf] dfO;]lnod pd|G5g\. o;/L Rofpsf] hLjg rj|m k"/f x'G5. lj|mofsnfk 3.1 rf6{k]k/df Rofpsf] hLjgrj|msf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ sIffdf k|bz{g ug'{xf];\. 3.3 Rofpsf] k|of]u (Use of mushroom) k|frLg sfnb]lv g} Rofp vfB kbfy{ / cf}ifwLsf ¿kdf k|of]u x'Fb} cfPsf] s'/f ljleGg k|frLg wd{zf:qx¿ rrf{ ePsf] kfOG5. cfw'lgs lj1fgn] klg RofpnfO{ k|z:t k|f]l6g, le6fldg / vlgh tŒjsf ;fy} z"Go sf]n]:6«f]n ePsf] :j:y / kf]lifnf] vfB kbfy{sf ¿kdf k|dfl0ft ul/;s]sf] 5. ljZj vfB ;ª\u7gn] klg RofpnfO{ vfB j:t'x¿sf ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] u/L l;kmfl/; u/]sf] 5. RofpnfO{ dfgj :jf:Yo / cfly{s cfocfh{g ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5. Rofpsf] dxŒjnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 M -s_ dfgj :jf:Yosf nflu Rofpsf] dxŒj (Importance of mushroom in human health) Rofp cToGt} :j:yjw{s / kf]lifnf] vfB kbfy{ xf]. Rofpdf le6fldg, k|f]l6g, kmfOa/ tyf vlghnufotsf tŒjx¿ kfOG5g\. Rofp /l;nf] / :jflbnf] x'G5. Rofpsf] dxŒjnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M -c_ k|f]l6gsf] ;|f]tsf ¿kdf M ;'Vvf tf}nsf cfwf/df Rofpdf k|f]l6gsf] dfqf sl/a 19 b]lv 35 k|ltzt x'G5 hals rfdndf 7.3 k|ltzt, ux'Fdf 12.7 k|ltzt, e6df;df 38.1 k|ltzt tyf s'v'/fsf] df;'df 18 b]lv 20 k|ltzt /x]sf] x'G5. Rofpdf kfOg] k|f]l6gdf dfgj z/L/sf] ljsf;sf nflu cTofjZos Pldgf] Pl;8x¿ klg kfOG5g\. -cf_ le6fldgsf] ;|f]tsf ¿kdf M Rofp Riboflavin (B2), Niacin, Pantothonic acid, thiamine(B1), Biofin, Polate / Vitamin B12 nufotsf le6fldgsf] /fd|f] :f|f]t xf]. df5f df;' ;]jg gug]{ JolStx¿sf nflu t Rofp cToGt} cfjZos vfB kbfY{f xf]. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 29  -O_ vlgh kbfy{sf] ;|f]tsf ¿kdf M Rofpdf k|z:t dfqfdf kf]6fl;od, ;f]l8od, km:kmf]/;, SoflN;od, tfdf, kmnfd cflb vlgh kbfy{x¿ kfOG5g\. -O{_ cf}ifwLsf ¿kdf M Wf]/} klxn]b]lv g} rLg, hfkfg, sf]l/of h:tf ljsl;t d'n'sx¿n] Rofpsf] cf}ifwLo u'0f kQf nufPsf lyP. g]kfndf klg ljif]z u/L cfo'j]{b lrlsT;sx¿n] Rofpsf] ;]jgnfO{ hf]8 lbg] u/]sf 5g\. Rofpsf] lgoldt ;]jgn] dw'd]x, pRr /Strfk, SofG;/nufotsf y'k|} /f]ux¿;Fu k|lt/f]w ug]{ Ifdtf ljsf; x'g] s'/f cg';Gwfgaf6 b]lvPsf] 5. To;} u/L /ftf] Rofpaf6 ljleGg cf}ifwL Hf:t} M Concord, Sunchiha pTkfbg ul/Psf] 5 h'g bd, dw'd]x, SofG;/, kfON; / 3f6L;DaGwL /f]ux¿sf nflu pkof]uL dflgG5. -v_ Rofpsf] cfly{s dxŒj (Economic importance of mushroom) Rofpdf kfOg] kf}li6s tŒj / o;sf] cf}ifwLo dxŒjn] ubf{ Rofpsf] Jofj;flos v]tL ug]{ ul/Psf] 5. o;af6 k|z:t cfly{s cfocfh{g ug{ ;lsG5. Rofpsf] Jofj;flos v]tLn] :j/f]huf/ klg l;h{gf u5{. h'Dnf nufotsf 7fpFdfdf kfOg] Morchella hfltsf] Rofp h:fnfO{ Guchi chyau elgG5. o;sf] cGt/f{li6«o ahf/df k|ltlsnfsf] 500 8n/eGbf a9L k5{. g]kfndf h}ljs k|ljlwaf6 Rofpsf] ;'s'6L, crf/ agfO{ / fd|f] cfocfh{gsf] ;|f]tsf ¿kdf k|of]u ul/Fb} cfPsf] 5. g]kfndf ul/g] Rofp v]tLdf sGg] Rofp (Pleurotus ostreatus) Ps k|d'v Rofp v]tLdf kb{5. sf7df8f}Fdf r}t dlxgfb]lv sflQs;Dd of] Rofpsf] v]tL ug{ ;lsG5. kxf8L e]udf uf]a|] Rofp -Agaricus bisporus) sf] Jofj;flos ¿kdf v]tL u/L pTkfbg ul/G5. 3.4 Rofp v]tL (Mushroom farming) Rofp v]tL ljleGg lsl;daf6 ug{ ;lsG5. Rofpsf] k|hfltcg';f/ v]tL ug]{ ljlw klg km/s km/s x'G5. s]xL Rofpx¿ ;fwf/0f k|ljlw cKfgfO{ 3/d} klg pTkfbg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] s'g} Rofp pTkfbg ug{ ljz]if k|ljlwsf] k|of]u ug'{k5{. oxfF k/fndf pTkfbg ul/g] sGg] Rofp v]tL ug]{ tl/sf j0f{g ul/Psf] 5. lrq 3.5 Rofp v]tL 30 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff (  sGg] Rofp v]tL ug]{ tl/sf sGg] Rofpsf] v]tL ug{ lgDglnlvt ljlw ckgfpg] ul/G5 M -s_ /fd|f] u'0f:t/Lo k/fn ;ª\sNfg ug]{ / o;nfO{ 1 b]lv 2 OGr;Ddsf] dl;gf] 6'j|mf agfpg] -v_ k/fnsf] dl;gf] 6'j|mfnfO{ kfgLdf /fvL sl/a 15 - 20 ldg]6 /fd|/L pdfNg] h;n] ubf{ pdfNbf k/fndf ePsf ls6f0f'x¿ gi6 x'G5g\ / k/fn g/d x'G5. o:tf] k/fndf Rofp /fd|/L pd|g ;S5. -u_ pdfn]sf] k/fnnfO{ /fd|/L ;'Vvf agfpg] / sl/a Ps lbgkl5 pSt ;'Vvf k/fnsf 6'j|mfnfO{ Knfl:6ssf y}nLdf ldnfP/ /fVg] -3_ k/fnsf] 6'j|mfx¿nfO{ Knfl:6ssf] y}nLdf tx tx agfO{ /fVg] / k|To]s txdf Rofpsf] lap 5g]{ -ª_ Pp6f Knfl:6ssf] y}nLdf ;fwf/0ftof 5-6 tx agfpg] / k|To]s txsf] prfO 8-10 OGr agfpg] -r_ k/fnsf] 6'j|mfnfO{ /fd|/L xftn] vfb\g] / To;df 10-12 cf]6f hlt Kjfn agfpg] -5_ Knfl:6ssf] yf}nLnfO{ ;ft lbg;Dd cWof/f] sf]7fdf /fVg], o;f] ubf{ ;ft lbgkl5 Knfl:6sleq dl;gf] e'jf h:tf] ;]tf] j:t'n] 9fs]sf] x'G5. -h_ Knfl:6ssf] emf]nfdf tLgrf/cf]6f Kjfn agfpg] / cfjZostfcg';f/ kfgL 5s{g]. -em_ sl/a 10 lbgkl5 Rofp pd|]sf] b]lvG5. o; a]nf Knfl:6snfO{ sf6]/ lgsfNg'k5{. sl/a 17 lbgkl5 Kjfn agfPsf] 7fpFaf6 Rofp pd|g yfN5. -`_ sl/a 25 lbgkl5 k"0f{ jo:s x'G5 / To;nfO{ l6Kg ;lsG5. kl/of]hgf sfo{ ljBfno÷3/df Rofp v]tL ug]{ tl/sf / ljlw k|of]u u/L Rofp pTkfbg ug'{xf];\. Rofp pTkfbgsf nflu ul/Psf k|of;x¿ / pknlAwnfO{ ;d]6L k|ltj]bg tof/ u/L sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\. 3.5 Rofpsf] e08f/0f / pkof]u (Storage and use of mushroom) Rofpdf ePsf] ljz]if u'0fn] ubf{ k|frLg sfnb]lv g} o;nfO{ vfB kbfy{ tyf cf}ifwLsf ¿kdf k|of]u ul/Fb} cfPsf] 5. RofpnfO{ nfdf] ;do;Dd ;'/lIft /fvL k|of]u ug{ ljleGg k|ljlw ckgfOG5. o;af6 ;'s'6L, crf/, s]rk, ;'k cflb agfpg ;lsG5. oLdWo] ;'s'6L agfpg] ;fwf/0f ljlw o; k|sf/ /x]sf] 5 M -c_ Rofp ;kmf;Fu kvfNg] -cf_ ;fgf ;fgf 6'j|mf kfg]{ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 31  -O_ plDn/x]sf] kfgLdf 98\ofpg] -O{_ RofpnfO{ v'nf 3fd jf cu]gf jf cfw'lgs cf]eg k|of]u u/L ;'sfpg] -p_ /fd|/L ;'s]kl5 xfjf gl5g]{ u/L Koflsª ug]{ -pm_ pSt Koflsª ul/Psf] RofpnfO{ pko'St 7fpFdf e08f/0f ug]{ lrq 3.6 Rofpsf] ;'s'6L lrq 3.7 Rofpsf] crf/ Rofp ;'sfpg] ljlw ;fdfGotof Rofp ;'sfpg lgDglnlvt ljlwsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 M -s_ /;fog k|of]u u/L ;'sfpg] M RofpnfO{ 1% kf]6fl;od afO;NkmfO8, 0.2% ;fOl6«s Pl;8, 6 % lrgL / 3% g'gsf] 3f]ndf 16 306f lehfP/ 60 b]lv 62 l8u|L ;]lN;o; tfks|ddf /fvL 8 306f ;'sfpFbf u'0f:t/Lo ;'s'6L aG5. Rofpsf] ;'s'6LnfO{ w'nf] kf/]/ xfjf gl5g]{ ef8f]df aGb u/L /fVg'k5{. -v_ 3fddf ;'sfpg] M sGo] RofpnfO{ 25 l8u|L ;]lN;o;eGbf a9L tfkj|md ePsf] 3fddf jf oflGqs tj/n] 40 b]lv 45 l8u|L ;]lN;o; tfkj|mddf ;'sfpg'k5{. o;/L ;'sfPsf] RofpnfO{ l;n u/]sf] kf]lnlyg Aofuleq 120 lbg;Dd e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5. s]rk, r6gL / crf/sf ¿kdf RofpnfO{ nfdf] ;Do;Dd e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5. oL pTkfbgnfO{ 20 b]lv 22 l8u|L ;]lN;o; tfkj|mddf sDtLdf 6 dlxgf;Dd e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5. Rofpsf] ;'k, ksf}8f, cf]dn]6 :ofG8ljr, s/L, s]rk, crf/ cflb kl/sf/ agfO{ vfg ;lsG5. kl/of]hgf sfo{ tkfO{“sf] ljBfno jf 3/glhs} Rofp v]tL ul/Psf] 7fp“df e|d0f ug'{xf];\. If]q e|d0fsf cfwf/df Rofp v]tL ug]{ tl/sf, Rofpsf] dxŒj tyf cfly{s cfocfh{g / dfgj :jf:Yosf nflu Rofpsf] k|of]u ;DaGwdf hfgsf/Lx¿ ;ª\sng u/L k|ltj]bg tof/ ug'{xf];\ / sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\. 32 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 3.6 vfg] Rofp / ljiffn' Rofp (Edible and poisonous mushroom) s] ljiffn' Rofp vfgfn] d[To' ePsf 36gf ;'Gg'ePsf] 5 < k|To]s jif{ ljiffn' Rofp vfP/ dflg;sf] csfndf g} Hofg uPsf 36\gfx¿ ljleGg ;~rf/sf dfWodaf6 ;'lgG5. hª\undf kfOg] RofpnfO{ vfg x'g] / vfg gx'g] -ljiffn'_ 5'6\ofpg ufx|f] x'G5. glrg]sf] hª\unL Rofp vfg'x'Fb}g. cfkm"n] lrg]sf] jf vfg of]Uo egL k|dfl0ft Rofpx¿ dfq vfg'k5{. ljiffn' Rofp klxrfg ug{ 5'6\6} lsl;dsf] k|ljlw ljsf; ePsf] kfOFb}g. cu|hx¿sf lrq 3.8 ljleGg k|sf/sf Rofp cg'ejsf cfwf/df vfg x'g] / vfg gx'g] Rofp 5'6\ofO{ ;]jg ug]{ ul/Psf] kfOG5. ljiffn' Rofpx¿ 5'6\ofpg] ;lhnf] sfo{ geP klg lgDglnlvt agf]6 ePsf Rofp ljiffn' x'g ;Sg] cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5. t/ cg'dfgs} cfwf/df s'g} Rofp ljiffn' 5}g eg]/ vfg'x'Fb}g. k|of]uzfnfdf kl/If0f u/]/ dfq s'g} Rofp ljiffn' xf] jf xf[Og egL Plsg ug{ ;lsG5. -s_ xNsf v}/f] /ªsf] Rofp -v_ ;]tf] luN; (gills) ePsf] Rofp -u_ sf08df l/ª (valva) ePsf] Rofp -3_ /ftf] /ª ePsf] Rofp -ª_ /ftf] sf08 jf kfOn; ePsf] Rofp -r_ ls/f gnfu]sf] lrNnf] kfOn; ePsf] Rofp -5_ Rofpsf] kfOn; xNsf lyRbf kx]Fnf] /ª cfpg] Rofp cflb. kl/of]hgf sfo{ xfd|f] b]zdf a;]{lg ljiffn' Rofpsf] ;]jgaf6 dflg;sf] d[To' x'g] u/]sf 36gfx¿sf] af/]df Rofp;DaGwL hfgsf/ JolSt;“u ;f]wvf]h tyf OG6/g]6sf dfWodaf6 vf]hL u/L o:fsf] sf/0f, Rofpsf] k|sf/ tyf o;af6 aRg cjnDag ug'kg]{ pkfonfO{ ;d]6L k|ltj]bg tof/ ug'{xf];\ / sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 33 cEof; != tn lbOPsf k|Zgx¿sf] ;xL pQ/df l7s lrx\g -√_ nufpg'xf];\ M -s_ RofpnfO{ d[tf]klhjL (saprotrophic) hLj eGg'sf] sf/0f s'g xf] < -c_ o;n] cfˆgf] vfgf cfkm}F agfpg ;Sb}g. -cf_ o;n] ;8]un]sf s'lxPsf j:t'af6 vfgf k|fKt u5{. -O_ cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu c¿df e/ k5{. -O{_ hLjsf] z/L/af6 vfgf ;f];]/ lnG5. -v_ Rofpdf kfOg] d'Vo tŒj s] s] x'g\ < -c_ vlgh, le6fldg, k|f]l6g -cf_ ;]fl8od, sfaf]{xfO8]6 / k|f]l6g -O_ Pldgf] Pl;8, le6fldg / k|f]l6g -O{_ SoflN;od, lrNnf] kbfy{ / vlgh -u_ s'g Rofpaf6 SofG;/ /f]usf pkrf/sf nflu cf}ifwL agfOG5 < -c_ /ftf] Rofp -cf_ 8Nn] Rofp -O_ sGg] Rofp -O{_ uf]a|] Rofp -3_ xfOd]lgoddf ePsf] :6]/fOn sf]ifnfO{ s] elGg5 < -c_ a]l;l8od -cf_ 6«fdf (Trama) -O_ kf/fkmfOl;; -O{_ xfOkmf -ª_ a]l;l8of]:kf]/ (Basidiospore) sxfF aG5 < -c_ xfOd]lgod -cf_ ;a–xfOd]lgod -O_ 6«fdf -O{_ kf/fkmfOl;; @= sf/0f lbg'xf];\ M -s_ RofpnfO{ d[tf]khLjL elgG5. -v_ dflg;sf nflu Rofp kmfObfhgs / xflgsf/s b'j} x'G5g\. -u_ pRr /Strfk, dw'd]x, d'6' /f]u ePsf dflg;nfO{ Rofp ;]jgdf k|f]T;fxg ul/G5. -3_ hª\unL Rofp k|of]u ug{ ;fjwfgL ckgfpg'k5{. #= km/s 5'6\ofpg'xf];\ M -s_ vfg] Rofp / laiffn' Rofp -v_ k|fylds / låtLo dfO;]lnod -u_ kf/fkmfOl;; (Paraphysis) / a]l;lo8d (Basidium) 34 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( $= tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -s_ Rofpdf kfOg] kf}li6s tŒjsf] gfd n]Vg'xf];\. -v_ Rofpsf] cf}ifwLo dxŒjsf] j0f{g ug{'xf];\ -u_ …dfgj :jf:Yo tyf cfocfh{gsf nflu Rofp dxŒjk"0f{ dflGfG5Ú, ts{;lxt n]Vg'xf];\. -3_ ;fwf/0f k|ljlwaf6 3/d} Rofpsf] v]tL s;/L ul/G5 < 5f]6s/Ldf j0f{g ug{'xf];\. -ª_ RofphGo pTkfbgsf] ;"rL agfpg'xf];\. -r_ Rofpsf] ;'s'6L agfpg] ljlw j0f{g ug'{xf];\. -5_ laiffn' Rofpsf ljz]iftf s] s] x'g\, n]Vg'xf];\. -h_ Rofpsf] lrq agfO{ o;sf ljleGg efusf] gfds/0f ug{'xf];\. -em_ Rofpsf] hLjgrj|m lrq;lxt j0f{g ug'{xf];\. -`_ lrq cjnf]sg u/L ;f]lwPsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf];\ M -c_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf efusf] gfd n]vL k|To]ssf] Ps Pscf]6f sfd n]Vg'xf];\. -cf_ aLhf0f' s'g efudf x'G5 < -O_ lbOPsf EffunfO{ Fruiting body / Mycellium df 5'6\ofpg'xf];\. -6_ lrqdf luN;sf] ;]S;g b]vfOPsf] 5, lrqsf cfwf/df lgDglnlvt k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -c_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf efusf] gfd n]Vg'xf];. -cf_ s / v lar s] km/s 5 < -O_ Basidiospore s;/L pTkfbg x'G5, j0f{g ug{'xf];\. lj1fg tyf k|ljlw, sIff ( 35  $ j|md ljsf; (Evolution) lrq 4.1 tn lbOPsf k|Zgx¿df cfwfl/t eO{ 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ M -c_ k[YjLdf ;a}eGbf klxn] s'g ;hLjsf] pTklQ ePsf] lyof] xf]nf < -cf_ s] xfd|f] jl/kl/ kfOg] ;hLjx¿ klxnfb]lv g} cl:tTjdf lyP xf]nfg\ < -O_ ;hLjx¿df km/skgf s;/L cfof] xf]nf < -O{_ nfvf}F jif{ klxn] cl:tTjdf /x]sf hLjx¿sf af/]df s;/L yfxf kfOG5 xf]nf < cfw'lgs dfGotfcg';f/ k[YjLdf xfnsf ljsl;t hLjx¿ clt ;/n ;"Id hLjx¿af6 j|mdzM ljsf; ePsf] dflgG5. jftfj/0fdf kl/jt{g xF'b} hfFbf ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/df klg kl/jt{g x'Fb} uof]. j|mdljsf;sf ljleGg k|df0fx¿sf cfwf/df ;fwf/0f ;hLjaf6 hl6n z/L/ ePsf ;hLjx¿ pTkGg eP. xfd|f] jl/kl/ ljleGg lsl;dsf ;hLjx¿ kfOG5g\. tL ;hLx¿cGtu{t AofS6]l/of, cldaf h:tf ;/n agf]6 ePsf hLjb]lv hl6n agf]6 ePsf ax'sf]ifLo :Qgwf/L hgfj/ tyf km"n km'Ng] jg:kltx¿ kb{5g\. k|To]s hLjx¿ Ps csf{df leGg b]lvG5g\. k[YjLsf] agf]6, xfjfkfgLcg';f/sf] hLjx¿sf] cg's"ntfnufot cGo ljljw sf/0fn] ubf{ hLjx¿df km/s u'0fx¿ ljsf; x'Fb} uPsf] dflgG5. pbfx/0fsf nflu dflg; tyf xfQL b'j} hLj hldgdf a:g] 9f8 ePsf :tgwf/L hgfj/ x'g\ t/ klg logLx¿sf w]/} u'0fx¿ km/s 5g\. oxfF;Dd ls k[YjLsf ljleGg e"efudf a:g] dflg;lar klg 5fnfsf] /ª, prfOnufot w]/} u'0fx¿df cGt/ /x]sf] kfOG5. To:t} u/L km"n km'Ng] jg:kltx¿ Pp6} ;d"xdf kb{5g\ t/ o:tf jg:kltx¿ xhf/f}F lsl;dsf 5g\ / Ps csf{df km/s 5g\. 36 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 4.1 j|md ljsf;sf] kl/ro (Inroduction to evolution) cfheGbf w]/} jif{ klxn] cl:tTjdf /x]sf hLjx¿sf af/]df ltgLx¿sf cjz]ifsf] cWoogaf6 yfxf kfpg ;lsG5. o;/L ;hLjx¿df kfOg] ;dfgtf / leGg u'0fx¿sf cfwf/df s] cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] k[YjLsf] ;txdf ;a}eGbf klxn] ;fwf/0f hLjsf] pTklQ ePsf] x'g'k5{. jftfj/0f kl/jt{g;Fu} ljleGg k|sf/sf hl6n ;hLjx¿sf] pTklQ ePsf] dflgG5. ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/sf] agfj6 ;fwf/0faf6 hl6n ¿kdf kl/jt{g x'Fb} uP/ ;hLjx¿sf] gofF k|hflt ljsf; x'g] k|lj|mof g} j|md ljsf; xf]. lrqdf ;hLjx¿sf] j|mdljsf;sf] gd'gf b]vfOPsf] 5. k[YjLsf] pTklQ ePsf] nfvf}F jif{kl5 dfq} k[YjLsf] ;txdf hLjx¿sf] pTklQ ePsf] ljZjf; 5. ;'? ;'?df hLjx¿ afFRg ;Sg] cg's"n jftfj/0f lyPg. k[YjLsf] ;txdf lg/Gt/ kl/jt{g eof]. kfgL k/]kl5 jftfj/0f kl/jt{g x'Fb} uof]. ljleGg k|sf/sf tŒjx¿lar /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof eof], kmn:j¿k hf}ljs c0f'sf] lgdf0f{ eof]. jftfj/0f kl/jt{g x'g] j|md lg/Gt/ rln/x\of]. h}ljs c0f' ag]kl5 clt ;/n ;"Id hLjf0f' (Virus) sf] pTklQ x'g uof]. ;hLjsf nflu cg's"n jftfj/0f aGb} uof]. j|mdljsf;sf] j|mddf k|f]Sofl/of]6 AofS6]l/of h:tf hLjx¿sf] pTklQ eO{ To;kl5 lrq 4.2 hLjx¿sf] j|md ljsf; of]eGbf a9L ljsl;t o'Sofl/cf]l6s sf]ifsf] pTklt eof]. Pssf]ifLo hLjx¿ tyf jg:kltx¿sf] ljsf; eof]. To;kl5 cg's"n jtfj/0f ;Fu;Fu} ax'sf]ifLo hGt' tyf jg:kltx¿sf] pTklQ tyf ljsf; ePsf] dflgG5. ;hLjx¿df lg/Gt/ kl/jt{g x'g] j|md rln/xFbf ltgLx¿sf] zf/Ll/s agfj6 ;/naf6 hl6n x'Fb} uPsf] kfOG5. o; j|mddf xfO8«f, 6]kjd{, u8\of}nf, k'tnL, hfFt]ls/f, tf/]df5f h:tf d]?b08 gePsf hGt'x¿sf] ljsf; x'Fb} uof]. d]?b08 gePsf hGt'af6 d]?b08 ePsf kfgLdf a:g] ;/n hLj ;d'b|L 3f]8f, df5f cflbsf] ljsf; eof]. kfgLdf a:g] hLjaf6 peor/, peor/af6 3;|]/ lxF8\g] hLj x'Fb} d]?b08 ePsf hl6n hgfj/x¿ h:t} 3f]8f, xfQL, dflg;sf] ljsf; eof]. To:t} k|sf/n] jg:kltcGtu{t Pssf]ifLo cNuLsf] pTklQkl5 ax'sf]ifLo cNuLsf] ljsf; eof] eg] jftfj/0f kl/jt{g ;Fu;Fu} of]eGbf ljsl;t a|fof]kmfO6f, 6]l/8f]kmfO6f jg:kltsf] pTklQ eof]. Pjd\ j|mdn] km"n gkm'Ng] jg:kltkZrft\ km"n km'Ng] jg:klt h:t}M lhDgf]:kd{ / km"n km'Ng] hl6n agf]6 ePsf jg:kltsf] pTklQ tyf ljsf; eof]. oL ;du| k|lj|mofnfO{ j|md ljsf;sf ¿kdf lnOG5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 37 4.2 j|md ljsf;sf l;4fGtsf k|df0fx¿ (Evidences of organic evolution) k[YjLdf hLjx¿sf] ljsf; j|md ;/naf6 hl6n ePsf] xf] eGg] s'/fsf cfwf/x¿nfO{ k'li6 ug{ ;xof]u ug]{ k|df0fx¿ g} j|md ljsf;sf l;4fGtsf k|df0fx¿ x'g\. o:tf j|md ljsf;sf l;4fGtsf k|df0fdWo] d'Vo k|df0fnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 M -s_ hLjfjz]ifaf6 k|fKt k|df0f (Evidences from fossil) w]/} jif{ klxn] d/]sf hGt' tyf jg:kltsf s'g} c+z, 5fk jf lrx\g kq] r6\6fgdf kfOG5, To;nfO{ hLjfjz]if (Fossil) elgG5. hLjfjz]ifsf] af/]df cWoog ug]{ ljifonfO{ Paleontology elgG5. hLjfjz]ifsf] cWoogaf6 nfvf}F jif{ cl3 cl:tTjdf /x]sf ;hLjx¿sf af/]df hfgsf/L lng ;lsG5. hLjfjz]ifaf6 k|fKt k|df0fnfO{ j|md ljsf;sf] alnof] cfwf/ dflgG5. hLJffjz]if s;/L aG5 xf]nf < lrq x]/L 5nkmn ug'{xf];\. hLjfjz]if kq] r6\6fgdf dfq kfOG5. ;hLjx¿ d/]kl5 ltgsf] d[t z/L/nfO{ vf]nf, gbL, df6f] afn'jf;Fu} aufP/ n}hfG5. cGtdf 7'nf] tfn jf ;d'b|df ldl;G5 / lj:tf/} lylu|g yfN5. of] k|lj|mof lg/Gt/ rlNf/xG5. tfn jf ;d'b|sf] lkFwdf Pskl5 csf]{ tx aGb} hfG5. nfvfF} jif{kl5 kq] r6\6fg aGb5. k|To]s txdf ePsf lrq 4.3 hLjfjz]if lgdf{0f k|lj|mof ;hLjx¿sf] sdnf] efu tyf df+zk]zL un]/ hfG5 eg] xf8 tyf ;]n'nf]h afFsL /xG5g\. oL efux¿ Gf} r6\6fgsf kqdf d/]sf ;hLjsf] 5fksf ¿kdf /xG5 h;nfO{ hLjfjz]if elgG5. o;/L ag]sf] kq] r6\6fgsf] ;a}eGbf tNnf] kqdf ;fwf/0f agf]6 ePsf ;hLj h:t} clNusf] hLjfjz]if kfOPsf] 5 eg] dflyNnf] kqdf :tgwf/Lsf] hLjfjz]if kfOPsf] 5. o;af6 s] olsg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] ;hLjx¿sf] ljsf; j|mdzM ;/naf6 hl6n ;+/rgf ePsf ;hLj ljsf; EfPsf] :ki6 x'G5. o;sf/0f ljsf;sf] b[li6sf]0fn] hLjfjz]ifaf6 k|fKt k|df0fnfO{ w]/} dxŒj lbPsf] 5. slt k'/fgf]] r6\6fg xf] egL olsg ug{ sfa{g 8]l6ª / o'/]lgod 8]l6ª ljlwaf6 cfo' lgwf{/0f ul/G5. To;df ePsf] hLjfjz]ifsf] cfo' klg Tolt g} jif{ ePsf] dflgG5. o;sf cfwf/df cfheGbf nfvfF} jif{ cl3 cl:tTjdf /x]sf ;hLjx¿sf af/]df hfgsf/L lng ;lsG5 M 38 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( -v_ t'ngfTds z/L/ /rgfaf6 k|fKt k|df0f (Evidences from comparative morphology and anatomy) k|s[ltdf kfOg] hGt' tyf jg:kltx¿sf] zf/Ll/s agf]6 cfcfˆg} lsl;dsf] x'G5. t/ klg oL ;hLjx¿df s'g} g s'g} ;femf u'0fx¿ kfOG5g\. o;n] s] b]vfpF5 eg] oL ;hLjx¿ Pp6} k'vf{af6 pTklQ ePsf x'g\ eGg ;lsG5. t'ngfTds z/L/ /rgfaf6 kfOg] k|df0fx¿ lgDgcg';f/ /x]sf 5g\ M -c_ ;wdL{ cª\ux¿ (Homologous organs) d]?b08 ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] z/L/ ljleGg xf8sf 6'j|mf ldnL ag]sf] x'G5. d]?b08 ePsf hgfj/ x¿sf ljleGg cª\usf] agf]6sf] cWoog ubf{ Pp6} 9fFrf / j|mdaf6 xf8sf 6'j|mf ldnL ag]sf] kfOG5. o;n] hGt'x¿sf] kf/:kfl/s ;DaGw /x]sf] yfxf kfpg ;lsG5. ;hLjx¿df kfOg] cª\ux¿ Hf;sf] pTklQ (Embryomic origin) Pp6} x'G5 t/ km/s km/s sfdsf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{ ;wdL{ cª\ux¿ (Homologous organ) elgG5, Hf:t}M dflg;sf] xft, 3f]8fsf] cufl8sf] v'6\6f, rd]/fsf] kv]6f, Xj]nsf] kv]6fdf kfOg] xf8x¿sf] agfj6 Pscfk;df ldNbf]h'Nbf] kfOG5. dflg;sf] xft / 3f]8fsf] cufl8sf] v'6\6fsf] xf8sf] ;+/rgfdf j|mdzM Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpels, Meta carpels / Phalanges kfOG5. lrq 4.4 3f]8fsf] cufl8sf] v'66\ f / dflg;sf] xft o; k|df0fn] pko{'St hgfj/x¿ k'vf{ ;d"xaf6 ljsl;t ePsf] tYo k|dfl0ft x'G5. ;hLjx¿df kfOg] To:tf cª\ux¿ Hf:fsf] pTklQ (Embryonic origin) km/s km/s x'G5 t/ Pp6} sfo{sf nflu k|o]fu ul/G5 eg] To:tf cª\ux¿nfO{ Pgfnf]u; (Analogous organ) elgG5, h:t} M ls/f, rd]/f / r/fsf kv]6fx¿ p8\gsf nflu k|of]u x'g] eP tfklg ls/fsf] kv]6f, r/f / rd]/fsf] kv]6f eGbf km/s leqL agfj6 ePsf x'G5g\. o;n] of] k|dfl0ft u5{ ls r/f, rd]/f / ls/fsf k'vf{ km/s km/s ;d"xsf x'g\. Pjd\ k|sf/n] cGo cª\ux¿ Kflg ;dfGftf kfOG5. To;} n] ;wdL{ cª\ux¿sf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt k|df0fn] j|mdljsf;sf] k'li6 ug{ dbt k'¥ofpF5. -cf_ cjz]iffª\uaf6 k|fKt k|df0f (Evidence from vestigial organ) xfd|f] z/L/df w]/} cª\ux¿ x'G5g\. tLdWo] s]xL cª\ux¿sf] pkof]u gePsf] x'gfn] lgis[o eP/ /x]sf x'G5g\ eg] s]xL cª\u cGo hgfj/df ljsl;t / sfo{d"ns x'G5g\. o:tf gd'gfsf ¿kdf dfq /x]sf cª\ux¿nfO{ cjz]iffª\u elgG5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 39 ljleGg hgfj/ / jg:kltx¿df o:tf cjz]iffª\ux¿ membrane /x]sf x'G5g\. pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf dflg;sf] z/L/df /x] ear muscles pinel gland sf s]xL cjz]iffª\unfO{ g} lng ;lsG5. dflg;df x'g] wisdom teeth tonsil s's'/ bfFt (Canine teeth) 9f8sf] tNnf] efudf /x] sf] Tail vertebrae sfgnfO{ xNnfpg ;Sg] df+;k]zL thymus gland x'G5g\. o;}u/L kfrg k|0ffnLdf kfOg] eld{kmd{ Pk]lG8S; nipples / cfFvfdf /x]sf lglS66]l6ª d]Da|]gsf] cjz]ifn] dflg;sf] k'vf{x¿sf] af/df atfO/x]sf 5G5g\. pko'{St cjz]iffª\ usf cfwf/df of] eGg ;lsG5 ls dflg;sf k'vf{x¿ cf] v/ h:tf kmnx¿nfO{ bfFtn] k'm6fpg ;Sg], k'R5/ ePsf, appendix zfsfxf/L / sfgnfO{ xNnfpg ;Sg] lsl;dsf lyP. o;} coccyx cfwf/df dfgjsf] j|mdljsf; PK;\x¿af6 ePsf] dfGotf 5. -u_ b'O{ ju{larsf hgfj/af6 k|fKt k|df0fx¿ lrq 4.5 dflg;df x'g] cjz]iffª\u (Evidences from bridge animals) lrq 4.6 Kn]l6k; lrq 4.7 cls{of]K6]l/S;sf] cjz]if 8s ljN8 Kn]l6k; (duck build platepus) sf] zf/Ll/s agf]6sf] cWoog ubf{ o;df b'O{ ju{sf hgfj/x¿sf u'0f kfOG5g\. o;sf] r'Rrf] xfF;sf] h:tf] x'G5 eg] z/L/ :tgwf/Lsf] h:tf] /f}n] 9fs]sf] x'G5. To:t} u/L o;n] r/fn] h:tf] k'mn kf5{ eg] :tgwf/Ln] em} aRrfnfO{ :tgkfg u/fpF5. o;af6 s] k|:6 x'G5 eg] r/fx¿sf] j|md ljsf; eP/ :tgwf/L hgfj/ df ljsf; eO{ cfPsf] xf]. o:t} u/L cfls{of]K6]l/;sf] cjz]ifsf] cWoogn] /]K6fOnx¿sf] j|mlds ljsf; kZrft\ r/fs]f ljsf; ePsf 5g\. k|f]6f]K6]/; (protopterus) sf] cWoogaf6 df5fsf] j|mlds ljsf; eP/ peor/sf] ljsf; ePsf] dflgg5. oxfF Kn]l6Kf;, cfls{of]K6]l/; / k|f]6f]K6]/; Bridge animal sf pbfx/0f x'g\. h:fn] tNnf] ju{ / dflyNnf] ju{nfO{ hf]8\5g\. b'O{ ju{sf] cGt/ ;DaGwn] klg al9 ljsl;t hgfj/x¿ sd ljsl;t hgfj/af6 g} ag]sf] tYo k|dfl0ft x'G5. 40 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  -3_ e|"0f;DaGwL k|df0f (Embryonic evidences) d]?b08 ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] k|f/lDes cj:yfx¿sf cWoog ubf{ lgs} ;dfgtf kfOG5. pbfx/0fsf nflu lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} df5f, ;fnfdfG8/, s5'jf, s'v'/f / dflg; ;'? cj:yfsf] e|"0fsf] agfj6 sl/a p:t} x'G5. o; k|sf/ oL ;a} d]?b08 gePsf hgfj/x¿ Pp6} k'vf{af6 ljsl;t ePsf x'g'k5{. o;n] klg j|mdljsf;sf] l;4fGtnfO{ k'li6 ug{ dbt k'¥ofpF5. k|f/lDes cj:yfsf] e|"0f dWo cj:yfsf] e|"0f kl/kSj e|"0f df5f ;fnfdfG8/ s5'jf s'v'/f dflg; lrq 4.8 e|0" f;DaGwL k|df0f kl/of]hgf sfo{ OG6/g]6 jf cGo ;|f]tx¿af6 j|md ljsf;sf k|df0f;DaGwL ljleGg lrqx¿ vf]hL ;ª\sng ug'{xf];\. ;ª\slnt lrqx¿ rf6{k]k/df 6f“:g'xf];\ / sIffdf k|bz{g u/L 5nkmn ug'{xf];\. 4.3 j|mdljsf;sf] l;4fGt (Theory of evolution) j|mdljsf;sf] l;4fGtsf] k|ltkfbgdf w]/} j}1flgsx¿n] of]ubfg u/]sf 5g\. Jean Baptide Lamark (France), Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin (Enlgand) / Hugo De Vries (Holland) j}1flgsx¿n] j|mdljsf;;DaGwL ljleGg l;4fGtsf] k|ltkfbg u/]sf 5g\. oLdWo] Lamark, Charles Darwin / Hugo De Vries sf j|mdljsf;;DaGwL l;4fGtx¿ oxfF pNn]v ul/Psf] 5. n]dfs{sf] l;4fGt (Lamarckism Theory) n]dfs{ Ps hgf k|mfG;]nL bfz{lgs x'g\ h;n] ;j{k|yd ljsf;j|md;DaGwL l;4fGt lbP. 5f]6f] 3fF6L ePsf lh/fkmsf] 3fF6L nfdf] s;/L eof] eGg] af/] o;} l;4fGtsf] cfwf/df lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 41 JofVof u/]. n]dfs{sf] j|md ljsf;;DaGwL l;4fGt ;g\ 1809 df Philosophie Zoologique eGg] k':tsdf k|sflzt eof]. n]dfs{sf] l;4fGtnfO{ lgDglnlvt tLgcf]6f a'Fbfdf a'‰g ;lsG5 M -s_ jftfjf/0fsf] k|ToIf k|efj (Direct environmental effect) -v_ cª\ux¿sf] pkof]u / cg'kof]u (Uses and disuses of organs) -u_ k|fKt u'0fx¿sf] ;Gtfgdf k|;f/0f (Inheritance of acquired characters) ablnFbf] jftjf/0fdf ;hLjsf nflu gofF gofF cfjZostf a9\b} hfG5g\. o;n] ubf{ ;hLjsf] z/L/df kl/jt{g cfpF5. o:tf] kl/jt{gdf cª\ux¿sf] ¿kdfGt/0fb]lv lnP/ gofF cª\usf] ljsf; / k'/fgf cª\ux¿sf] nf]k x'g] sfo{ klg x'g ;S5. cª\usf] ¿kfGt/0f / gofF cª\usf] ljsf;n] cª\ux¿sf] pkof]u / cg'kof]udf klg k|ToIf c;/ kfb{5. a9L pkof]udf cfpg] cª\ux¿sf] ljsf; a9L / sd pkof]udf cfpg] cª\ux¿sf] ljsf; sd x'G5 / cGttM To:tf cª\ux¿ nf]k x'G5g\. ;hLjn] cª\ux¿sf] pkof]u / cg'kof]u tyf jftfj/0fLo k|efjn] k|fKt u'0fx¿sf] k|;f/0f ;Gtfgdf u5{. o:t} kl/jt{g x/]s j+zdf x'Fb} hfFbf gofF hfltsf] pTklQ x'G5. o; l;4fGtnfO{ lh/fkmsf] 3fF6Lsf] nDafO a9\g] ljsf;j|md;Fu o;/L hf]8\g ;lsG5. ;'?df ;a} lh/fkmx¿ 5f]6f] 3fF6L ePsf lyP. ltgLx¿ rp/df ePsf] 3fF; rb{y]. jftfj/0fLo kl/jt{gn] rp/sf] 3fF;df sdL cfpgfn] ltgLx¿ nDsL nDsL ?vsf] kft vfg yfn]. o;/L 3fF6Lsf] k|of]un] ubf{ 3fF6L cln cln ub}{ nfdf] eof] / x/]s j+zdf To;sf] k|;f/0f klg x'Fb} uof]. o;/L s}Fof}F j+z;Dd oxL k|lj|mof rn]/ clxn]sf nfdf 3fF6L ePsf lh/fkm ljsl;t eP. logsf] l;4fGtnfO{ k|of]uaf6 hfFRbf ;xL kfOPg / j|md ljsf;;DaGwL sltko k|Zgx¿af6 of] l;4fGt cg'Ql/t eof] h:t} M != s] ;hLjn] cfˆgf] OR5f / cfjZostfcg';f/ cª\ux¿sf] ljsf; ug{ ;S5 < @= s] ;a} k|fKt u'0fx¿ ;Gtfgdf k|;f/0f x'G5g\ < 8fla{gsf] l;4fGt (Darwin’s Theory) Charles Darwin cª\u|]h j}1flgs x'g\. pgn] gofF hfltsf] pTklQ -Origin of new species) k':ts ;g\ 1859 df k|sflzt u/]. 8flj{gsf] l;4fGtnfO{ k|fs[lts 5gf]6sf] l;4fGt -Theory of natural selection_ klg elgG5. pgn] k':tsdf hLj ljsf;;DaGwL lgDglnlvt cjwf/0ffx¿ cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\. -s_ cTolws ;Gtfgf]Tkfbg Ifdtf (Enormus fertility) Kf|To]s ;hLjdf ;Gtfgf]Tkfbg ug]{ Ifdtf x'G5. ;hLjx¿n] hGdfPsf ;GttLx¿ ;a} afFRg] xf] eg] csf]{ k':tfdf k'Ubf bf]AAf/ x'G5. ;hLjx¿sf] ;ª\Vof HofldtLo cg'kftdf j[l4 xF'b} hfG5 t/ k|s[ltdf ;hLjx¿sf] ;ª\Vofsf] cg'kft o;/L cTolws 42 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  ;ª\Vofdf geO{ sl/a plQg} /x]sf] kfOG5. pbfx/0fsf nflu xfQLn] cfˆgf] hLjgdf sl/a 6 cf]6f aRrfx¿ dfq hGdfpF5. o;/L hGd]sf hlt ;a} xfQLsf 5fjfx¿ afFRg] xf] eg] 750 jif{df Ps hf]8L xfQLaf6 1900000 ;Gtfg pTkfbg x'G5g\. -v_ af“Rgsf nflu ;ª\3if{ (Struggle for existence) ;hLjx¿n] hGdfPsf hlt ;a} ;Gtltx¿ afFRg] xf] eg] k|s[ltdf ;hLjx¿sf] ;ª\Vof cTolws j[l4 eP/ hfG5, h;n] ubf{ vfgf / a:gsf] cefj x'G5. k|To]s ;hLjx¿n] vfg, a:g, k|hggnufot kl/jlt{t jftfj/0f;Fu afFRgsf nflu ;ª\3if{ jf k|lt:kwf{ ug{'kg]{ x'G5. o:f lsl;dsf] k|lt:kwf{ cfkm\g} ;d"xlar tyf km/s km/s k|hfltsf ;d"xlar x'g] ub{5. h'g hLjx¿ ;ª\3if{ ug{ ;kmn x'G5g\ tL ;hLjx¿dfq afFRg ;Ifd x'G5g\ eg] ;ª\3if{df c;kmn x'g hLjx¿ nf]k eP/ hfG5g\. o;nfO{ afFRgsf nflu ;ª\3if{ elgG5. -u_ kl/j[lQ / j+zh (Variation and heredity) Kf|s[ltdf kfOg] ;hLjx¿ Pp6} k|hfltsf eP tfklg s]xL g s]xL u'0fx¿df leGgtf jf km/s x'G5. cfkm\g} ;xf]b/ jf cfdfafa' tyf ;GttLx¿lar klg km/skg kfOG5, h:fnfO{ kl/j[lQ (Variation) elgG5. jftfj/0f kl/jt{gsf sf/0fn] jf j+zf0f'df x'g] kl/jt{gsf (Genetic reason) sf/0fn] kl/j[lt x'G5. kl/j[lQsf] sf/0faf6 gofF u'0f ;hLjn] k|fKt u5{ / csf]{ j+zdf ;/]/ hfG5. ;a} ;hLjx¿df jftfj/0fcg's"n kl/j[lQ gx'g klg ;S5. t;y{ h'g ;hLjx¿df jftfj/0fcg's"n kl/j[lQ x'G5 tL afFRg ;Ifd x'G5g\ t/ k|lts"n kl/j[lQ ePdf afFRg ;Ifd xF'b}gg\. -3_ k|fs[lts 5gf]6 (Natural selection) ;hLjx¿df jftfj/0fcg';f/ cg's"n u'0fx¿ ljsf; ePdf afFRg ;S5g\ t/ k|lts"n u'0f ljsf; ePdf lj:tf/} nf]k x'Fb} hfG5g\. s'g} ;hLj slt afFRg] / s;/L afFRg] eGg] s'/f k|s[lt :jod\ cfkm}Fn] lgwf{/0f ub{5. afFRgsf nflu ;ª\3if{ ubf{ cg's"n u'0fx¿ ljsf; x'Fb} hfG5g\. tL u'0fx¿ ;Gtltx¿df ;b}{ hfG5g\ / k|To]s jz+df cem a9L cg's"n u'0fx¿ ljsf; x'Fb} hfG5g\. w]/} jif{kl5 ;Gtltx¿ laNs'n} gofF u'0f ePsf b]vf k5{g\. o:tf u'0fx¿sf] pkl:yltn] To; ;hLjnfO{ jftfj/0fdf afFRg ;Ifd t'NofpF5, h;nfO{ k|fs[lts 5gf]6 elgG5. -ª_ gof“ k|hfltsf] pTklQ (Origin of new species) afFRgsf nflu ;ª3if{ ub}{ cg's"lnt ePsf ;hLjx¿ afFRgsf nflu ;Ifd x'G5g\. o:tf cg's"lnt x'g] u'0f ;Gtltx¿df ;b}{ hfG5g\. o;/L kl/jlt{t jftfj/0fdf afFRgsf nflu ;Ifd ;hLjsf cg's'lnt u'0fx¿ ;Gtltx¿df ;b}{ hfFbf w]/} j+zkl5 k'vf{x¿eGbf km/s u'0f ePsf ;Gtfgsf] pTklQ x'G5. log} ;Gtltx¿ gofF ;hLjsf ¿kdf ljsl;t x'G5g\. Pp6} k'vf{af6 b'O{ jf ;f]EfGbf a9L lsl;dsf gofF hLjsf] pTklQ x'g hfG5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 43  8fla{gsf] l;4fGtsf] cfnf]rgf (Criticism of Darwinism) 1. 8fla{gn] kl/j[lQaf6 hLjsf] pTklQ;DaGwL TfYonfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf j0f{g u/]sf 5}gg\. s]xL ;hLjx¿df dfq cg's"n kl/j[lQ x'g] clg c¿df k|lts"n kl/j[lQ lsg x'g] eGg] 2. af/]df :ki6 JofVof u/]sf 5}gg\. 3. k|fs[lts 5gf]6 gofF hfltsf] ljsf;sf] sf/s dfq xf] lsgeg] pTkl/jt{gaf6 klg hLjx¿df leGgtf cfpF5. k|fs[lts 5gf]6df olb pkof]uL u'0f dfq 5gf]6 ePsf] eP sfd gnfUg] u'0fx¿ 5gf]6 4. gx'g' kg]{ xf] t/ ePs} kfOG5. kl/j[lQ / pTkl/jt{g (Variation and mutation) s'g} vf; k|hfltsf] ;d"xdf /xg] x/]s ;hLjsf s]xL g s]xL u'0fx¿df km/skgf x'G5. h'DNofx¿ klg 7ofSs} p:t} kfOb}gg\. o;/L lglZrt k|hfltx¿sf k|To]s ;b:ox¿lar x'g] km/skgfnfO{ kl/j[lQ (Variation) elgG5. o:tf] kl/j[lQ pxL k|hfltsf ;hLjx¿df klg b]lvG5. ;hLjx¿df kl/j[lQ b'O{ lsl;dn] ePsf] kfOG5. o:tf] kl/j[lQ klxnf] Somatogenic Variation / bf];|f] Blastogenic Variation x'G5. pbfx/0fsf nflu v]nf8Lsf] df+zk]zLo'St z/L/, intelligence cflb somatogenic variation sf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\. o:tf u'0fx¿ cfkm\gf k':tfaf6 ;/]/ cfPsf x'Fb}gg\ / ;Gtltdf klg ;/]/ hfFb}gg\ cyf{t\ ;hLjsf] d[To';Fu} ;dfKt x'G5g\. s'g} ;hLjsf] sf]ifdf ePsf j+zf0f'ut u'0f (Gene) df ePsf] kl/jt{gn] ubf{ x'g] kl/j[lQ Blastogenic Variation xf]. o; lsl;dsf] kl/j[lQ csf]{ jz+df ;/]/ hfG5. pbfx/0fsf nflu 5fnfsf] /ª, z/L/df x'g] /f+}Fsf] /ª, cfFvfsf] /ª cflb. ;hLjx¿df kl/j[lQ jl/kl/ /x]sf] jftfj/0fsf] c;/n] ubf{ klg x'g] ub{5. ;hLjx¿n] Jfftfj/0fdf cg's"ng x'g ;f]xLcg';f/sf u'0fx¿ ljsf; u5{g\. ;hLjx¿n] k|fKt u/]sf kl/j[lQ ;a} cg's"n kl/j[lt (Favourable variartion) ePdf To:tf ;hLj afFRg ;S5g\ / csf]{ jz+df hfg ;Ifd x'G5g\ t/ k|lts"n kl/j[lQ (Unfavourable variation) ljsf; ePdf To:tf ;hLjx¿ nf]k eP/ hfG5g\. o;/L cg's"n kl/j[lQ ljsf; x'Fb} hfFbf ;hLj aFfRg ;Ifd x'G5g\, o;sf ;fy;fy} csf]{ jz+df hfg klg ;Ifd x'G5g\. o:tf] cj:yfdf cfˆgf k'vf{eGbf km/s u'0f ePsf ;Gtlt ljsf; x'G5g\. jftfj/0fn] ubf{ ;hLjx¿df kl/jt{g ePsf] x'G5. Pp6} cfdfa'afsf ;Gtfgx¿ km/s km/s jftfj/0fdf x'Fbf pgLx¿sf] aflx/L ¿kdf km/skg cfpF5. oL hLjx¿ j+zf0f'ut ¿kn] Pp6} eP klg jftfj/0fsf] c;/n] aflx/L ¿kdf leGgtf x'G5, o;nfO{ jftfj/0fLo kl/j[lQ elgG5. j|mf]df]hf]ddf kl/jt{g x'g uO{ gofF u'0f ePsf] ;Gtltx¿ ljsf; x'g'nfO{ pTkl/jt{Gf (Mutation) elgG5. pTkl/jt{g s'g} hLjdf PSsf;L b]vfkg]{ clg/Gt/ kl/j[lQ xf]. o; lsl;dsf u'0fx¿ n'Kt (recessive) x'G5g\, h:t} M xftdf 6 cf]6f cf}Fnf x'g', cf]7 sfl6Psf] 44 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( aRrf hGdg', 6fpsf] hf]l8Psf] aRrf hGdg', /f}F gePsf] d';f ljsl;t x'g' cflb. pTkl/jt{g x'g] k|d'v sf/0fdf j+zf0f' dfly /f;folgs kbfy{ jf /]l8of]wdL{ ljls/0fsf] k|efj xf]. h'g ;hLjgdf pTkl/jt{g x'G5 To;nfO{ Do'6\ofG6 / pTkl/jt{gsf] sf/s tŒjnfO{ Do'6fh]g elgG5. pTkl/jt{gn] ubf{ g} cfdfafa'df x'Fb} gePsf nIf0fx¿ ;Gtfgdf b]vf k5{g\. kl/of]hgf sfo{ 1. j/k/sf] ;d'bfo, ljBfno tyf 5/l5d]sdf xftdf ^ cf]6f cf}“nf ePsf dflg;, zf/Ll/s ¿kdf km/skgf ePsf dflg; cyjf kf“rcf]6f v'6\6f ePsf hgfj/ jf cGo cs:dft\ ePsf] kl/jt{gsf] cjnf]sg jf vf]hL ug{'xf];\ / tL pTkl/jt{g x'gsf sf/0fx¿ / tL kl/jt{gaf6 x'g] kmfObf a]kmfObf;DaGwL hfgsf/L ;ª\sng u/L k|ltj]bg tof/ ug'{xf];\ / sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\ 2. cfˆgf] kl/jf/df ePsf h]i7 ;b:o;“u rf/ kF“r k':tf cufl8;Ddsf k'vf{x¿df ePsf u'0fx¿sf] ljj/0f ;ª\sng ug{'xf];\. k'vf{ / clxn]sf ;Gtltdf kfOg] u'0fsf] tflŒjs km/s;lxtsf] ljj/0f tof/ u/L sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\. 3. OG6/g]6sf dfWodaf6 pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL pbfx/0fx¿sf] lrq ;ª\sng ug{'xf];\ / tL lrqx¿nfO{ rf6{k]k/df 6f“; u/L k|b{zg ug{'xf];\. x\o'uf] 8L le|hsf] pTkl/jt{gsf] l;4fGt (Hugo De Vries Mutation Theory) x\o'uf] 8L le|h (Hugo De Vries) g]b/Nof08sf jg:klt lj1 (Botanist) x'g\. pgn] ;g 1901 Dff pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL l;4fGt k|ltkfbg u/]sf x'g\. cWoogsf j|mddf pgn] Evening Prime Rose (Oenothera lamarkina) la?jf k||of]u u/]sf lyP. pgn] pSt la?jfdf 14 cf]6f j|mf]df]hf]d x'g'kg]{df o;sf k|hfltdf 15, 16, 20, 22 s|f]df]hf]d ;ª\Vof kfP. x\o'uf] 8L le|hsfcg';f/ gofF hfltsf] pTklQ lg/Gt/ kl/j[lt (Continuous variaton) af6 geO{ pTkl/jt{g (mutation) af6 x'G5. pgsf cg';f/ pTkl/jt{gsf (mutation) l;4fGtx¿ lgDgcg';f/ 5g\ M 1. gofF hfltsf] pTklQ pTkl/jt{g (mutation) sf sf/0fn] klg x'G5. To;sf/0f pTkl/jt{g j|md ljsf;sf] Pp6f cfwf/ xf]. 2. pTkl/jt{gdf PSsfl; gofF u'0f b]vfk5{g\ / t'?Gt} (functional) sfo{d"ns x'G5. 3. ;a} pTkl/jt{gx¿ csf]{ jz+df ;/]/ hfGf ;S5g\. 4. pkof]uL kl/j[lQ ePsf hLjx¿ 5gf]6 x'G5g\ / cg'kof]uL kl/j[lQ ePsf hLjx¿ x/fP/ hfG5g\. 5. kl/j[lQ w]/} ePdf gofF hfltsf] pTklQ x'G5. lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 45 x\o'uf] 8L le|hsf] pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL l;4fGtsf] cfnf]rgf (Critism of Hugo De Vries Mutation Theory) x\o'uf] 8L le|hsf] pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL l;4fGtsf /fd|f kIfx¿ x'Fbfx'Fb} klg s]xL cfnf]rgfx¿ klg /x]sf 5g\ h;nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M 1. Oenothera lamarkiana la?jf k'/fgf] k|hfltsf] xfOla|8 (Hybrid) xf] o;df b]lvPsf gofF u'0f s|f]df]hf]dsf] 5'6\l6g] / Rearrangement n] ubf{ x'G5, pTkl/jt{gn] xf]Og. 2. pTkl/jt{gsf] l;4fGtn] j|mdljsf;sf] s'g} lglZrt lbzf lbFb}g. 3. olb pTkl/jt{g cfsl:ds ¿kdf b]vf kg]{ u'0f eP pSt hLjx¿ (Mutant) jftfj/0fdf cg's"ng x'g ;Sb}g lyP t/ To;f] ePsf] kfOFb}g. 4. pgn] pTkl/jt{gdf k|s[ltsf] e"ldsfsf] j0f{g u/]sf] kfOFb}g. 5. ;fwf/0ftof pTkl/jt{gaf6 cfPsf u'0fx¿ recessive x'G5. lj|mofsnfk 4.1 sIffdf cWoog ug]{ ;fyLx¿ ;d"xdf ljefhg x'g'xf];\. cfkm\gf ;d"xsf ;fyLx¿lardf cfkm\gf k':tf / cfkm"x¿df cfPsf] kl/j[lQ tyf pTkl/jt{gsf af/]df 5nkmn u/L tnsf] tflnsfdf e/L sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf];\. cfPsf] kl/jt{g kl/jt{gsf] k|sf/ kl/jt{gsf] k|efj kl/j[lQ pTkl/jt{g cEof; != tnsf k|Zgsf] ;xL pQ/df l7s lrx\g -√_ nufpg'xf];\ M -s_ Kf|fs[lts 5gf]6 l;4fGtsf k|ltkfbs sf] x'g\ < -c_ rfN;{ 8flj{g -cf_ Nf]dfs{ -O_ x\o'uf] 8L le|; -O{_ hf]g u|]u/ d]G8n -v_ ;wdL{ cª\usf] pbfx/0f s'g xf] < -c_ xfd|f] xft / 3f]8fsf] cufl8sf] v'6\6f -cf_ xfd|f] xft / xfQLsf] bf/f -O_ xfd|f] sfg / v/fof]sf] sfg -O{_ dflg; / l;+xdf kfOg] s's/' bfFt 46 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  -u_ hLjfjz]if s'g r6\6fgdf kfOG5 < -c_ kq] r6\6fg -cf_ cfUg]o r6\6fg -O_ kl/jlt{t r6\6fg -O{_ Hjfnfd'vL r6\6fg -3_ j+zf0f' ;+/rgfdf kl/jt{g eO{ ;Gtltx¿df gofF u'0f b]lvg] k|lj|mofnfO{ s] elgG5 < -c_ j|mdljsf; -cf_ pTkl/jt{g -O_ kl/j[lQ -O{_ cjz]iffª\u @= sf/0f lbg'xf];\ M -s_ hLjfcjz]ifaf6 k|fKt k|df0fnfO{ j|mdljsf;sf] alnof] cfwf/ dflg5. -v_ hGd]sf ;Gtltx¿sf] ;ª\Vof w]/} eP tfklg hLjx¿sf] hg;ª\Vof a9]sf] kfOFb}g. -u_ kl/j[lQ dfq} gofF hfltsf] pTklQsf] sf/s tŒj xf]Og. -3_ dflg;, afFb/, 3f]8f / r/fx¿ Pp6} k'vf{af6 ljsl;t eO{ cfPsf] dflgG5. #= km/s 5'6\ofpg'xf];\ M -s_ kl/j[lt / pTkl/jt{g -v_ 8fla{g / 8L le|hsf] l;4fGt -u_ xf]df]nf]u; / Pgfnf]u; cª\ux¿ -3_ cjz]if / cjz]iffª\u (fossil and vestigial Organ) $= tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -s_ j|md ljsf; eg]sf] s] xf] < -v_ hLjfcjz]if s]nfO{ elgG5 < o;n] j|mdljsf;sf] k|df0fnfO{ s;/L k'li6 u5{ < -u_ hLjfcjz]if s;/L aG5, j0f{g ug'{xf];. -3_ j|mdljsf;sf k|df0fx¿ s] s] x'g\ < pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug'{xf];\. -ª_ 8fla{gsf] j|mdljsf;sf] l;4fGtnfO{ 5f]6s/Ldf j0f{g ug'{xf];\. -r_ k|fs[lts 5gf]6 eg]sf] s] xf], j0f{g ug'{xf];\. -5_ 8fla{gsf cg';f/ gofF hfltsf] pTklQ s;/L x'G5, j0f{g ug'{xf];\. lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 47  -h_ pTkl/jt{gsf ljz]iftf pNn]v ug'{xf];\. -em_ pTkl/jt{gn] j|mdljsf;nfO{ s;/L dbt u5{ < -`_ j|mdljsf;sf nflu pTkl/jt{g g} d'Vo sf/s geO{ of] klg Pp6f yk sf/s tŒj xf], :k:6 kfg{'xf];\. -6_ 8fla{gsf] l;4fGtcg';f/ afFRgsf nflu ;ª\3if{ / ;Ifd g} afFRg ;S5 eGg] s'/fsf] k'i6\ofO ug{'xf];\. -7_ 8fla{gn] k|ltkfbg u/]sf] j|mdljsf;;DaGwL l;4fGtsf] s;/L cfnf]rgf ul/Psf] 5, JofVof ug'{xf];\. -8_ hLjfjz]ifsf] cWoogaf6 xfnsf hLjx¿ ljutsf] cljsl;t Pssf]ifLo / ax'sf]ifLo hLjaf6} pTklQ ePsf x'g\ eGg] s'/f k'li6 ug{'xf];\. -9_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog ug{'xf]; / lgDg k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -c_ lrqdf s] b]vfOPsf] 5 < -cf_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf] j|mdljsf;sf] k|df0fn] s'g s'g ju{nfO{ hf]8\g vf]H5, n]Vg'xf];. -O_ o; lrqn] j|mdljsf; ePsf] ;DaGwdf yk k|df0f s;/L lbG5 n]Vg'xf];\. -0f_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog ug{'xf];\ / k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf];\ M -c_ b]vfOPsf lrqdf s] kl/jt{g ePsf] 5 < -cf_ s] o:tf u'0f ;a} hLjdf b]vf k5{g\ < -O_ of] u'0f b]vf kg{'sf sf/0f s] xf]nf < -O{_ o;n] j|mdljsf;df s;/L dbt k'¥ofpF5 < -p_ o; k|sf/sf] kl/jt{gsf tLgcf]6f kmfObf n]Vg'xf];\. -t_ n]df{ssf] l;4fGt / 8flj{gsf] l;4fGtlar t'ngf ug'{xf];\. 48 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  % zf/Ll/s ;+/rgf / hLjg k|lj|mof (Body Structure and Life Process) x/]s ;hLjsf] hLjg Pp6f sf]ifaf6 ;'? x'G5. Pssf]ifLo hLjn] x/]s sfo{ ToxL Pp6f sf]ifaf6 g} u5{. ax'sf]ifLo hLjx¿df sf]if sf]if ldn]/ tGt' ag]sf] x'G5. ljleGg tGt'x¿ ldn]/ cª\u ag]sf] x'G5. cª\ux¿sf] ;d"x ldn]/ s'g} ljz]if sfo{x¿ ub{5. cª\ux¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ k|0ffnL elgG5. ;hLjx¿sf] hLjgrj|m ;'rf? /fVgsf nflu z/L/df ljleGg lj|mofsnfkx¿ eO/x]sf x'G5g\, h:t} M kf]if0f, Zjf;k|Zjf;, k|sfz ;+Zn]if0f, kl/jxg, lgisf;g, k|hgg cflb. ;hLjdf x'g] oL ;a} lj|mofsnfkx¿nfO{ hLjg k|lj|mof elgG5. ljsl;t hLjx¿df k|To]s hLjg k|lj|mof ;~rfng ug{ k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; ePsf] x'G5. 5.1 tGt' (Tissue) lrqsf] cjnf]sg u/L 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ M lrq 5.1 -c_ oL sf]ifx¿ sxfF x'G5g\ < -cf_ oL sf]ifx¿df s:tf] leGgtf b]Vg'x'G5 < -O_ jg:klt / hGt'sf] z/L/df logLx¿sf] s:tf] e"ldsf /x]sf] x'G5 < -O{_ s] ;a} jg:klt sf]if / hGt' sf]if Ps} lsl;dsf x'G5g\ t < -p_ jg:klt / hgfj/x¿df kfOg] tGt'x¿ s;/L ag]sf x'G5g\ < lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 49 k|To]s ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/ ;/n / ;;fgf PsfOx¿ ldn]/ ag]sf] x'G5. pSt ;;fgf PsfOx¿nfO{ sf]if elgG5. hLjx¿ Pssf]ifLo xf];\ jf ax'sf]ifLo ltgLx¿sf] agfj6 / sfo{ sf]ifaf6 g} ;'? x'G5. sf]ifx¿af6 g} hLjsf hLjg k|lj|mofx¿ ;~rfng x'G5g\ / z/L/ lgdf{0f x'G5. To;}n] sf]ifnfO{ hLjx¿sf] z/L/sf] ;+/rgfTds -structural_ / sfo{d"ns -functional_ PsfO elgG5. Pssf]ifLo hLjdf Zjf;k|Zjf;, kf]if0f lgisf;g, j[l4, rfn / k|hgg h:tf hLjg k|lj|mofx¿ Pp6} sf]ifleq k"/f x'G5g\. ljsl;t / ax'sf]ifLo hLjdf oL ljleGg sfo{x¿ 5'6\6f5'6\6} sf]ifx¿sf ;d"xaf6 ;DkGg x'G5g\. hLjx¿df x'g] ljleGg hLjg k|lj|mofx¿ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu p:t} lsl;dsf cyjf ljleGg lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"x ag]sf] x'G5. pSt sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ tGt' elgG5. jg:klt tyf hGt'x¿sf] z/L/df ;~rfng x'g] ljleGg lsl;dsf sfo{sf nflu km/s km/s ljz]iftf ePsf tGt'x¿ x'G5g\. tGt'x¿sf af/]df cWoog ug]{ hLj lj1fgsf] zfvfnfO{ lx:6f]nf]hL (Histology) elgG5. jg:klt / hGt' tGt' u/L tGt' b'O{ k|sf/sf x'G5g\. ljrf/0fLo k|Zg M Ps sf]ifLo hfOuf]6af6 hLjx¿sf] k"/f z/L/ s;/L lgdf{0f x'G5 xf]nf < jg:klt tGt' (Plant Tissue) Kofhsf] lemNnLdf h:t} jg:kltsf] z/L/sf k|To]s efu p:t} cyjf km/s km/s jg:klt sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"x ldnL ag]sf] x'G5. pSt sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ jg:klt tGt' elgG5. jg:kltsf] z/L/df ljleGg sfo{x¿ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu ljleGg lsl;dsf jg:klt tGt'x¿ /x]sf x'G5g\. jg:klt tGt'x¿nfO{ o;sf] k|s[lt, cfwf/df d]l/:6d]l6s tGt' / :yfoL tGt' u/L b'O{ lsl;ddf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5. 1= d]l/:6d]l6s tGt' (Meristematic tissue) jg:kltsf] z/L/df /x]sf ljleGg lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿dWo] s]xL sf]ifx¿ sf]if ljefhg Ifdtf /fV5g\. kl/kSj sf]if ljefhg eO{ cGo sf]ifx¿ aGg] k|lj|mofnfO{ sf]if ljefhg elgG5. ljefhg Ifdtf ePsf sf]ifx¿af6 ag]sf tGt'x¿nfO{ d]l/:6d]l6s tGt' elgG5. o; tGt'df cGt/sf]ifLo vfnL efux¿ g/xg], leQf kftnf] x'g], 7'nf] Go'lSno; / uf9f ;fO6f]KnfHd x'G5g\. d]l/:6d]l6s sf]ifdf sf]if ljefhg eO{ cGo k|sf/sf sf]ifx¿ aGb5g\. d]l/:6d]l6s tGt'x¿ la?jfsf] j[l¢ If]qdf kfOG5g\. d]l/:6d]l6s tGt'sf] d'Vo sfd jg:kltsf] j[l¢ ljsf; ug'{ xf]. of] tGt' kfOg] :yfgsf cfwf/df Plksn d]l/:6]d, Nof6]/n d]l/:6]d / OG6/ Sofn/L d]l/:6]d u/L tLg k|sf/sf x'G5g\. lj|mofsnfk 5.1 udnfdf /f]k]sf b'O{cf]6f slnnf la?jfx¿dWo] Pp6f la?jfsf] 6'Kkf] ef“lrlbg'xf];\. Ps xKtfkl5 pSt la?jfx¿df ePsf] ljsf;sf] cjnf]sg ug'{xf];\. s] b'j} la?jfsf] j[l¢sf] k|s[lt Ps} lsl;dsf] 5 < lsg o:tf] ePsf] xf]nf sIffdf 5nkmn ug'{xf];\. 50 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (  -s_ Plksn d]l/:6]d (Apical meristem) Plksn d]l/:6]d la?jfsf] j[l¢ x'Fbf 6'Kkfsf] efu j[l¢ ePsf] b]lvG5. la?jfsf 6'Kkfsf] efudf /x]sf d]l/:6d]l6s tGt'x¿nfO{ Plksn d]l/:6]d Og6/Sofn/L d]l/:6]d elgG5. of] tGt' 8fF7 / h/fsf 6'Kkfdf x'G5. o;n] 8fF7 / h/fsf] nDafO a9fpF5, h:fn] ubf{ la?jfsf] prfO a9\5. olb la?jfsf] 6'Kkf] efFlrlbof] eg] pSt la?jfsf] prfO a9\b}g. Nof6]/n d]l/:6]d -v_ Nof6]/n d]l/:6]d (Lateral meristem) lrq 5.2 d]l/:6d]l6s tGt' la?jfsf] h/f tyf 8fF7sf] 5]psf] efudf klg d]l/:6d]l6s tGt'x¿ x'G5g\. logLx¿n] h/f tyf sf08sf] df]6fO j[l4 u5{g\. la?jfsf] 8fF7 tyf h/fsf] af]j|mfsf] leq k|d'v cIf;Fu ;dfgfGt/ x'g] u/L 5]pdf (lateral side) /x