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Because learning changes everything. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE A Study of Interrelationships, 16th Edition Chapter 16 Air Quality Issues Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. ® 16.1 The Atmosphere 1 Th...

Because learning changes everything. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE A Study of Interrelationships, 16th Edition Chapter 16 Air Quality Issues Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. ® 16.1 The Atmosphere 1 The atmosphere is composed of, 78.1% Nitrogen, 20.9% Oxygen. About 1% of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor. Most of the atmosphere is held close to the Earth by the pull of gravitational force. It gets less dense with increasing distance from the Earth. © McGraw Hill 2 The Atmosphere Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 3 Air pollution Air pollution can be defined as the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds in the air, at levels that pose a health risk Air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary © McGraw Hill 4 16.2 Pollution of the Atmosphere 3 In urbanized areas, pollution often cannot be sufficiently diluted or carried away. Air pollution is not just an aesthetic problem; it also causes health problems. In economically developed nations of the world, attention to air pollution problems has improved air quality substantially. Many of the megacities of the developing world have extremely poor air quality. The causes of this pollution are open fires, poorly maintained motor vehicles, and poorly regulated industrial plants. The World Health Organization estimates that air pollution accounts for about 7 million deaths annually. 20 to 30 percent of all respiratory diseases appear to be caused by air pollution. © McGraw Hill 5 Primary Pollutants A primary pollutant is an air Secondary Pollutants A secondary pollutant is not directly pollutant emitted directly from a emitted as such, but forms when other source. pollutants (primary pollutants) react in CO VOC s SO 2 © McGraw Hill PM the atmosphere. NO x Lea d HNO 3 H2SO 2 O3 6 16.3 Categories of Air Pollutants 1 Five major types of materials are released directly into the atmosphere in unmodified forms in sufficient quantities to pose a health risk. These are called primary air pollutants. They are: Carbon monoxide. Volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons). Particulate matter. Sulfur dioxide. Oxides of nitrogen. © McGraw Hill 7 carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of fuels , automobile emissions, electricity generation, industrial process NOx volatile organic compounds. Car exhaust, coal burning Industrial process, car exhaust, certain plants sulfur dioxide Burning coal and oil, smelting metals, volcanoes Lead particulate matter Construction, forest fires, volcanoes, tobacco © McGraw Hill Leaded gas, leaded paint, some industrial processes, metal processing, waste incineration 8 16.3 Categories of Air Pollutants 2 Secondary air pollutants form by reactions of primary pollutants and water or sunlight. Ozone Criteria air pollutants are those pollutants for which specific air quality standards have been set by USEPA. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Ozone (O3). Sulfur dioxide (SO2). Particulate matter (PM). Carbon monoxide (CO). Lead (Pb). Certain compounds with high toxicity are known as hazardous air pollutants © McGraw Hill 9 carbon monoxide volatile organic compounds. comes from the incomplete combustion of fuels so anytime you're burning a fuel whether it is wood fire gasoline when it burns in completely it can produce carbon monoxide our biggest source of this potent is car exhaust and it when gets into your blood and it impairs hemoglobin’s ability to carry oxygen to your cells, so your cells die of lack of oxygen this is a big category of air pollutants they can be various natural molecules that exist or form from industrial processes like car exhaust and certain plants naturally emit VOCs. so, these are organic molecules that can diffuse through the air and these depending on what they are. they can cause cancer, immune system damage, even blood disorders. sulfur dioxide comes from burning coal and oil primary recall also from smelting metals and some other industrial processes and volcanoes are a natural source of sulfur Dioxide this molecule can also irritate the respiratory system irritate the nose and throat and when it reacts with the atmosphere it forms sulfuric acid, so this is sulfuric acid which is formed when water vapor reacts with sulfur dioxide and it's a component of acid rain © McGraw Hill NOx which is going to be nitric oxide and then nitrogen dioxide. It is the brown. comes from primarily car exhaust and from car burning this one also irritates the respiratory system can aggravate asthma and other breathing problems Lead particulate matter also called particulates are any solid particles or liquid droplets that are small enough to stay suspended in the air their main sources are construction forest fires, volcanoes, tobacco smoke, and other particulates can get into your respiratory system and aggravate it and sometimes even damage it and the smaller the particulate the more dangerous it is because it can get deeper into the lung tissue and damage the tissue can result from sources of lead our leaded gas and let it paint and certain industrial processes such as making crystal glass bald LED is incredibly dangerous to human health it can cause mental retardation blindness partial paralysis and so there's been a big push to try to get laid off lead pollution and so let it gas for example is now banned in most countries 10 Table 16.1 Air Pollutant Standards 1 EPA Criteria Air Pollutants Air Pollutant Measurement Period U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards Carbon monoxide (CO) 8-hour average 1-hour average 9 ppm(10 mg/m3) 35 ppm(40 mg/m3) 10 mg/m3 10 mg/m3 30 mg/m3 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Annual average 1-hour average 0.053 ppm(100 µg/m3) 0.1 ppm(190 µg/m3) 40 µg/m3 200 µg/m3 40 µg/m3 200 µg/m3 Ozone (O3) 8-hour average 0.070 ppm(130 µg/m3) 120 µg/m3 100 µg/m3 Lead (Pb) 3-month average 0.15 µg/m3 In the following table, read ‘µg/m3’ as mu g per m3. 3 Annual average 0.5 µg/m Particulate matter (PM2.5) Annual average 24-hour average 12 µg/m3 35 µg/m3 Particulate matter (PM10) Annual average 24-hour average 150 µg/m Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 24-hour average 1-hour average 0.075 ppm (200 µg/m © McGraw Hill 3 3) European Union Air Quality Standards World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines 25 µg/m3 10 µg/m3 25 µg/m3 40 µg/m3 50 µg/m3 20 µg/m3 50 µg/m3 125 µg/m 350 µg/m3 3 20 µg/m3 500 µg/m3 (10-minute average) 11 Table 16.1 Air Pollutant Standards 2 Other Common Air Pollutants Air Pollutant Measurement Period U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards European Union Air Quality Standards Benzene Annual average No standards set. Current levels below 2.5 µg/m3 5 µg/m3 Volatile organic compounds World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines Reduction needed to reduce ground-level ozone (1 ng/m3 ) of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 3 In the following table,changes read ‘µg/m mu g per uses m3. and Pollution control to ’ asIndustrial coalfired power plants and releases of mercury power plant closure have regulated reduced mercury emissions Mercury Arsenic Annual average 6 ng/m3 Cadmium Annual average 5 ng/m3 Nickel Annual average 20 ng/m3 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Census Bureau, European Commission, and World Health Organization. © McGraw Hill 12 Hazardous Air Pollutants 1 Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) are dangerous chemical compounds that can cause harm to human health or damage the environment that are purposely or accidentally released into the air. Also known as air toxics. Examples. Pesticides. Benzene in gasoline. Some consumer products such as glues and cleaners. © McGraw Hill 13 Hazardous Air Pollutants 2 The majority of air toxics are released as a result of manufacturing processes. Perchloroethylene is released from dry cleaning establishment. Toxic metals are released from smelters. The chemical and petroleum industries are the primary sources of hazardous air pollutants. People exposed on the job are most likely to be harmed. © McGraw Hill 14 nitrogen and the sulfur can lead to nitric acid and sulfuric acid. And these lead to acid rain. It can dissolve statues, but more importantly it changes the pH in the whole food web and can impact living systems © McGraw Hill tropospheric ozone is the so-called bad ozone we also have good ozone in our stratosphere which protects us from damaging UV rays this is not it. this is ozone present in the troposphere that forms from the reaction of nitrogen oxides and VOCs, and it is considered a pollutant and can be very irritating to the eyes and throat it can reduce your resistance to colds and pneumonia, and it is a component of photochemical smog. 15 16.4 Photochemical Smog 1 Photochemical smog forms from the interaction of nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen monoxide, and volatile organic compounds with sunlight in a warm environment. Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants. Photochemical smog involves the production of secondary air pollutants. Secondary air pollutants are those that are created in the air from preexisting pollutants. © McGraw Hill 16 16.4 Photochemical Smog 2 The products of photochemical smog are ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN) and aldehydes. Two most destructive components: Ozone. Peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN). Ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrates are excellent oxidizing agents that will react readily with many other compounds, including those found in living things, causing destructive changes. © McGraw Hill 17 16.4 Photochemical Smog 3 Ozone (O3) is a molecule of three oxygen atoms bonded to one another. Ground-level ozone is a serious pollutant. However, in the upper atmosphere ozone serves to screens out ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light can damage tissue and cause genetic mutations. © McGraw Hill 18 16.4 Photochemical Smog © McGraw Hill 4 ©Photo by Justin Burner/Getty Images RF 19 How Smog Forms For photochemical smog to develop, several ingredients are required: Nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds must be present. Sunlight and warm temperatures are important to support the chemical reactions involved. In most urban areas, nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds are present as by-products of the burning of fuel in vehicles and industrial processes. © McGraw Hill 20 Daily Changes in Pollutants During a Photochemical Smog Incident FIGURE 16.11 Daily Changes in Pollutants During a Photochemical Smog Incident Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 21 Air Pollution Health Effects Lung disease Cance r Natur al Clean Air Act Pollutant s Inversio n Smo g VOCs CO NOX SO2 PM Stationa ry Mobil e Technolog y Primar y Lead Secondar y O3 HNO3 Source s Chemical s Control s Heart disease H2SO Acid deposition © McGraw Hill 22 Heart Disease Cancer Risk © McGraw Hill Lung Disease 23 The Role of Climate and Geography 1 Cities with warm climates and lots of sunlight are more prone to develop photochemical smog. Warm temperatures and sunlight encourage chemical reactions that cause smog. Smog is more likely to be a problem in the summer with higher temperatures and longer days. Cities adjacent to mountains or in valleys tend to have trouble with photochemical smog because pollutants are trapped by thermal inversions. © McGraw Hill 24 The Role of Climate and Geography 2 Thermal inversions occur when warm air becomes sandwiched between two layers of cold air and acts like a lid on a valley. Warm air cannot rise, causing smog accumulation. Ozone is produced by, It is necessary to reduce the levels VOCs and NO2 to decrease the production of ozone © McGraw Hill 25 16.5 Acid Deposition Acid deposition is the accumulation of potential acid-forming particles on a surface. Commonly referred to as acid rain. When dry particles are deposited, an acid does not actually form until these materials mix with water. Causes Some acids in the atmosphere result from natural causes: Vegetation. Volcanoes. Lightning. Human activities, such as the burning of coal and use of the internal combustion engine produces molecules that forms acids in the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Oxides of nitrogen (N O2 and NO) © McGraw Hill 26 Factors That Contribute to Acid Rain Damage Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Source: Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Acid Rain 27 Effects Effects on Structures Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems Reduction of Acid Precipitation Regulation of powerplant sources of SO2. Reduced release of NOx from vehicles. © McGraw Hill © McGraw-Hill Education/Louis Rosenstock, Photographer 28 16.6 Ozone Depletion In 1985, it was discovered that a significant thinning of the ozone layer over the Antarctic occurred during the southern hemisphere spring. The area became known as the “ozone hole.” Ozone in the outer layers of the atmosphere shields the Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light radiation. The Montreal Protocol, was an international treaty established in 1988. Initially limited production of chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) and halon (used in fire extinguishers) at 1988 levels. Further called for production of CFCs to be reduced by 50% by 2000. Ultimately all production was stopped. © McGraw Hill 29 Ozone Destruction Chlorofluorocarbons and similar compounds release chlorine atoms which can lead to the destruction of ozone. It can take 10 to 20 years for chlorofluorocarbon molecules to get into the stratosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons can remain in the stratosphere and react with the ozone for up to 120 years. © McGraw Hill 30 Changes in the Size of the Antarctic Ozone Hole (b) Changes in the size of the Antarctic ozone hole Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 31 In the United States, implementation of the requirements of the Clean Air Act has been the primary means of controlling air pollution. © McGraw Hill 32 Placing controls on the emissions from motor vehicles has resulted in a significant improvement in the air quality. Power Plant Emissions: Control of the release of nitrogen oxides typically involves processes that are technical and expensive. Particulate Matter Emissions reduction © McGraw Hill The EPA approached the problem by setting limits and allowing electric utilities to decide which options are the best for them. 33 Actions That Reduced Air Pollution Requirements to meet the goals of improving air quality: All industries are required to obtain permits to release materials into the air. All new and existing sources of air pollution are subject to national ambient air quality standards. Newly constructed facilities are subject to more stringent control technology and permitting requirements than pre-existing facilities. Hazardous air pollutants are specifically identified. Power plants are allowed to sell their sulfur dioxide release permits to other companies. The net result of this program has been a rapid reduction in sulfur dioxide emissions. A program for the phaseout of ozone-depleting substances (chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs], halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform) was established. © McGraw Hill 34 World Air Pollution FIGURE 16.21 World Air Pollution Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 35 16.9 Indoor Air Pollution Growing evidence indicates air within homes and other buildings can be more seriously polluted than outdoor air in the most industrialized cities. Sources of indoor air pollutants Asbestos. Formaldehyde (in many consumer products). Radon. Volatile Organic Compounds from a variety of sources. Carbon monoxide. Lead based paint in older homes. Particulate matter from burning material. Mold. Other disease-causing or allergy-producing organisms. © McGraw Hill 36 Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants 1. Smoking is the most important indoor air pollutant. Weatherizing to increase efficiency slows air exchange and tends to trap pollutants. Movements to reduce indoor air pollution lag behind regulations governing outdoor air pollution. The EPA is conducting research to identify and rank the human health risks that result from exposure to individual indoor pollutants or mixtures of multiple indoor pollutants. 2. Secondhand smoke is exposure to environmental tobacco smoke as a result of living and working in places where people smoke. People not smoke in their homes or permit others to do so. All organizations that deal with children have policies that protect children from secondhand smoke. Every company has a policy that protects employees from secondhand smoke. © McGraw Hill 37 Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants 3. Radon is an inert radioactive gas with a half-life of 3.8 days. It is formed as a byproduct of uranium-238 decay. It may undergo radioactive decay in human lungs when inhaled. Increased incidence of lung cancer is the only known health effect associated with radon decay products. Radon usually diffuses up through rocks and soil and escapes harmlessly into the atmosphere, but it can diffuse into groundwater. It can enter a home through an open space in the foundation, from gaps around pipes, or from wells. 4. Noise is unwanted sound. Research has shown that exposure to noise can cause physical as well as mental harm. The loudness of a sound is measured by decibels. The frequency or pitch of a sound is a factor in determining its degree of harm. The Noise Control Act of 19 72 was the first major attempt in the U.S. to protect the public health and welfare from detrimental noise. Human caused sound affects animals. Primarily caused by machines. Noise has an important negative effect in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems Noise makes it more difficult for animals to, Communicate. Hear sounds important to survival. © McGraw Hill 38 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE A Study of Interrelationships, 16th Edition Chapter 17 Climate Change: A 21st Century Issue Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. Climate Change Effects on Glaciers One of the obvious effects of climate change is the retreat of glaciers throughout the world. These photos show the Bear Glacier in Kenai Fjords National Park in Alaska. The Bear Glacier retreated over 6 kilometers (about 4 miles) between 2012 and 2019 and has continued to retreat. Access the text alternative for slide images. National Park Service 17.1 Earth Is a Greenhouse Planet 2 The Earth’s temperature is determined by several factors: Earth’s distance from the sun. Changes in the energy output of the sun. The presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Although Earth’s orbit around the sun results in small changes in the distance between the Earth and sun and the sun’s energy changes slightly on about an 11 year cycle, these differences appear to have little effect on Earth’s temperature. 17.1 Earth Is a Greenhouse Planet 3 Several gases in the atmosphere are transparent to ultraviolet and visible light but absorb infrared radiation. These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and be absorbed by the Earth’s surface. When sunlight energy is reradiated as infrared radiation (heat), some of it is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Because the effect is similar to what happens in a greenhouse, these gases are called greenhouse gases, and the warming that occurs because of their presence is called the greenhouse effect. 17.1 Earth Is a Greenhouse Planet 4 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Although the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is small, its effect is significant. According to NASA if there were no carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Earth’s temperature would be about −18oC (0oF) instead of the current temperature of about 15oC (60oF). The greenhouse effect caused by the presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere makes Earth suitable for life. Greenhouse Effect FIGURE 17.1 Greenhouse Effect Access the text alternative for slide images. Source: Data from Climate Change—State of Knowledge. October 1997. Office of Science and Technology Policy, Washington, D.C. 17.4 Sources and Impacts of Principal Greenhouse Gases 1 The most important greenhouse gases are: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) Chlorofluorocarbons (primarily CCl3F and CCl2F2) Nitrous oxide (N2O). 17.2 Geologic Evidence of Climate Change 1 The phrases global warming and climate change are sometimes used interchangeably, They are different aspects of the same problem. Global warming relates to an average increase in temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere Climate change refers to the many other changes that come about because of global warming. Weather Vs. climate Weather includes short-term activities such as; temperature changes, rain and snow events, winds, clouds, and other factors. Climate is the long-term average of weather patterns. Thus, if climate is changing, we should expect changes in weather patterns also. 17.2 Geologic Evidence of Climate Change Geologic studies of Earth’s history show that Earth’s climate has changed significantly over time. Some geologic periods were hotter than today and some were colder. Evidence of continental glaciers that covered large portions of North America, Europe, and Asia brought about a recognition that climate change had happened in the recent geologic past. 2 17.3 Growth in Knowledge of Global Warming and Climate Change 1 The average temperature of the Earth has been increasing. Scientists initially tried to determine if the warming was a natural phenomenon or the result of human activity. Evidence of past climate change going back as far as 160,000 years indicates a close correlation between the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and global temperatures. Computer models of climate indicate that as greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increase the Earth will get warmer and many climate changes will occur. Records of the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere show a steady increase in the amount of carbon dioxide. Studies of gas bubbles trapped in glaciers that indicate what the atmosphere was like before the time of the industrial revolution that began in the mid1700s (Carbon dioxide levels were lower). Satellite photos show how snow and ice conditions change. Migration behavior of terrestrial and marine animals show changes in the time of migration or the route followed. Evidence of climate change Records of the amount of carbon dioxide Ocean studies of CO2 content, pH change, and other changes in chemistry (pH is lower) in the atmosphere show a steady increase in the amount of carbon dioxide. Changes in growing seasons (Growing seasons are longer) Studies of gas bubbles trapped in Physical measurements of the retreat of glaciers that indicate what the atmosphere was like before the time of glaciers and thickness of ice sheets. the industrial revolution that began in the Effects of increased carbon dioxide on mid1700s (Carbon dioxide levels were photosynthesis. lower). Wind patterns. Satellite photos show how snow and ice Ocean currents. conditions change. Effects of particulates from natural (wind Migration behavior of terrestrial and erosion, volcanos) and human activities on marine animals show changes in the climate. time of migration or the route followed. Sea level measurements (Sea level has risen) Frequency and strength of tropical storms. © McGraw Hill 50 Research Related to Climate Change Access the text alternative for slide images. 17.4 Sources and Impacts of Principal Greenhouse Gases 3 Measurement of carbon dioxide levels at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii shows that the carbon dioxide level increased from about 317 parts per million (ppm) in 19 60 to over 411 ppm in 2019. This is an increase of nearly 30 percent. It is generally accepted that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prior to the industrial revolution was about 280 ppm. The current concentration represents an increase of 47 percent over preindustrial concentrations. Changes Currently the amount of methane in the atmosphere is increasing. Preindustrial concentrations were about 700 parts per billion (ppb). Current concentrations are about 1,870 ppb. Nitrous oxide (N2O), is a minor component of the greenhouse gas picture. Air contains both oxygen and nitrogen. During the process of burning fossil fuels, oxygen and nitrogen combine producing a variety of nitrogen containing compounds including nitrous oxide. Access the text alternative for slide images. Source: Data from EPA Climate Change Indicators and NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory. (left): Photo by Lynn Betts, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; (right): Mark Downey/Getty Images 17.4 Sources and Impacts of Principal Greenhouse Gases 6 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are synthetic compounds that are a minor component of the greenhouse gas picture. There are no natural sources of CFCs. CFCs were widely used as refrigerant gases in refrigerators and air conditioners, as cleaning solvents, as propellants in aerosol containers, and as expanders in foam products. Chlorofluorocarbons are extremely efficient as greenhouse gases. About 15,000 times more efficient at retarding heat loss than is carbon dioxide. Because chlorofluorocarbons are a major cause of ozone destruction, production and use of chlorofluorocarbons has been sharply reduced and scheduled to be eliminated by 2020. Atmospheric levels of chlorofluorocarbons are decreasing. Table 17.1 Principal Greenhouse Gases Pre-1750 Concentration (ppm) 2019 Concentration (ppm) Contribution to Global Warming (percent)* Carbon dioxide (CO2) 280 411 65 Burning of fossil fuels Deforestation Methane (CH4) 0.70 1.87 17 Produced by bacteria in wetlands, rice fields, and guts of livestock. Release from fossil fuel use Greenhouse Gas Principal Sources Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Zero 0.00083 8 Release from foams, aerosols, refrigerants, and solvents Nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.270 0.332 6 Use of fertilizer and manure in agriculture. Burning of fossil fuels *Does not total 100 percent because a number of minor gases collectively contribute about 4 percent to the total warming. Source: Data from NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory. 17.5 The Current State of Knowledge about Climate Change 1 In 1988, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to study the issue and make recommendations. A main activity of the IPCC is to provide an assessment of the state of knowledge about climate change at regular intervals. 17.6 Consequences of Climate Change 1 A small increase in the average temperature of the Earth may seem trivial, however, such an increase could set in motion changes that could significantly alter the climate of major regions of the world. Computer models suggest that rising temperature will lead to changes to the hydrologic cycle, sea level, human health, the survival and distribution of organisms, and the use of natural resources by people. Some natural ecosystems or human settlements will be able to withstand or adapt to the changes, others will not. Poorer nations are generally more vulnerable to the consequences of global warming. These nations tend to be more dependent on economic activity that is climatesensitive, such as subsistence agriculture, and lack the economic resources to adjust to the changes that global warming may bring. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has identified Africa as “the continent most vulnerable to the impacts of projected changes because widespread poverty limits adaptation capabilities.” Climate Change Oceans are intimately interrelated with climate. The oceans are becoming more acid. A change in the Earth’s temperature is expected to change weather and climate. Disruption of the Hydrologic Cycle Changes to Ecosystems Health Effects and Challenges to Agriculture and the Food Supply 3 Changes in Weather Related Disasters Table 17.2 Weather Related Events that Caused More than $1 Billion in Damage (United States). 1980 to 1999 of Number 1980 to 1999 of Cost ($ billion) 2000 to 2019 of Number 2000 to 2019 of Cost ($ billion) Severe storms 21 $40.6 92 $207.2 Tropical storms 18 $142.6 26 $803.3 Floods 11 $70.5 21 $76.0 Wildfires 3 $10.1 14 $74.8 Droughts 10 $116.5 16 $133.2 Freezes 6 $25.0 3 $5.5 Winter storms 11 $37.0 6 $12.3 Total 80 $442.3 178 $1,312.3 Event Health Effects 1 The most direct effect of climate change is the impact of hotter temperatures. Extremely hot temperatures increase the number of people who die (of various causes) on a given day. For example, people with heart problems are vulnerable because the cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather. Heat exhaustion and respiratory problems increase. Climate change will also make air pollution problems worse. Higher air temperature increases the concentration of ozone at ground level, which leads to injury of lung tissue and increases the incidence of respiratory disease, asthma, and allergies. Because children and the elderly are the most vulnerable, they are likely to suffer disproportionately from both warmer temperatures and poorer air quality. 17.7 Addressing Climate Change Energy Efficiency and Green Energy. Improving energy efficiency has the double impact of reducing carbon dioxide release and conserving the shrinking supplies of energy resources. A tax on the amount of carbon individuals and corporations release into the atmosphere would increase efficiency. It would also stimulate the development of alternative fuels with a lower carbon content and generate funds for research in many aspects of fuel efficiency and alternative fuel technologies. One way to stimulate a move toward greater efficiency would be to place a tax on the amount of carbon individuals and corporations release into the atmosphere. This would increase the cost of fuels and stimulate a demand for fuel efficient products because the cost of fuel would rise. Increases in energy efficiency and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are likely to have important related benefits that could offset the costs. Greater energy efficiency would lead to reduced air pollution, which would result in lower health care costs and time lost from work. Since carbon is an important component of living things, what happens to biomass has a role to play in determining atmospheric carbon dioxide. Forests consist of many long-lived tree species that can tie up carbon for centuries. International Agreements 1 1. The Montreal Protocol—Dealing with Chlorofluorocarbons. Established to phase out chlorofluorocarbon production. Changes made to protect the ozone layer have had the side benefit of reducing the release of a potent greenhouse gas. 2. Kyoto Protocol—Dealing with Greenhouse Gases. 2006 China became the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, followed the United States and European Union. New agreement required that ALL countries publish plans for reducing greenhouse gases. 3. The Paris Agreement—Establishing Goals to Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions A follow-up to the Kyoto Protocol. Meeting in Paris 2015. Goals of the agreement: Prevent human activity from causing a 2°C increase in global temperature this century. strive to keep it below 1.5°C. International Agreements 4 4. Madrid Climate Change Meeting. Took place in 2019. Goals. Establish how each countries N D Cs will be measured. Establish carbon credit trading mechanism—Not achieved. Develop plan for compensating developing countries for the damage they incurred because of energy use in developed countries.—No agreement reached. Encourage more aggressive greenhouse gas reductions. Further action deferred to next meeting. 5. The Kigali Agreement—Dealing with Chlorofluorocarbons and Hydrofluorocarbons. Chlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons destroy stratospheric ozone and are greenhouse gases. The Kigali Agreement is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol. Phases out the production of hydrofluorocarbons.