Networks and Communication Technologies PDF

Theme 4 (1): Networks and Communication Technologies Introduction Computer Network: A collection of interconnected computers through one or more transmission paths. Network: A set of devices (nodes) connected by media links; these nodes can include computers, printers,...

Theme 4 (1): Networks and Communication Technologies Introduction Computer Network: A collection of interconnected computers through one or more transmission paths. Network: A set of devices (nodes) connected by media links; these nodes can include computers, printers, or other devices capable of sending/receiving data. The three essential criteria for a successful network: Performance, Reliability, and Security. The internet is a massive communication system that gives users access to vast information by organizing data for easy access. Components of Networks Hosts: PCs, laptops, handheld devices. Routers and Switches: Example – IP routers. Links: Wired or wireless. Protocols: TCP/IP, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA. Applications: Network services. Users and Service Agents. Types of Networks 1. LAN (Local Area Network): o Covers a small geographical area. o Workstations or personal computers are closely located and can access data/devices within the network. 2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): o Larger than a LAN, typically covering a city. o High-speed connections through fiber optics or other digital media. 3. WAN (Wide Area Network): o Spans a large geographical area. o Links multiple LANs through public networks, satellites, or leased lines. o The internet is the largest WAN. Network Topologies 1. Bus Topology: o All devices connect to a central cable (bus). o Cost-effective and easy to install for small networks. 2. Ring Topology: o Devices form a closed loop, each connected to two others. o Higher bandwidth but more complex and expensive to set up. 3. Star Topology: o Devices connect to a central hub. o Uses a high-bandwidth backbone connecting slower-bandwidth star segments. Networking Applications Internet: The world's largest computer network. Telephone Service (POTS): One of the earliest and still widely used communication networks. Mobile Phones: Wireless networks with more mobile phones than landlines worldwide. Other Networking Applications 1. Cellular Phones: Communicate via cell towers, must be within range. 2. Dual-Mode Phones: Switch between cellular and Wi-Fi networks. 3. Satellite Phones: Useful in remote locations, often used by soldiers, journalists, and researchers.  4. Television and Radio Broadcasting: Delivers content via traditional and digital networks (cable, satellite, etc.). 5. GPS (Global Positioning System): Uses satellites to pinpoint location; employed by individuals, military, and professionals. 6. Monitoring Systems: Track the status/location of objects through RFID or GPS. 7. Electronic Medical Monitors: Home health care 8. Sensor Networks: Responds to heat, light or pressure to send a measurable electrical signal. 9. Telemedicine: Provides medical information/services remotely, including diagnosis, monitoring, and even telesurgery. 10. Telesurgery: Doctors operate on patients through the distance using robots. Networking Mediums 1. Wired Networking Mediums: o Twisted-Pair Cable: Common in LANs and telephones. o Coaxial Cable: Used for short-run telephone and cable TV. o Fiber-Optic Cable: High-speed data transmission using lasers over glass or plastic fibers. 2. Wireless Networking Mediums: o Data is transmitted through the air using radio waves. o The Electromagnetic Spectrum represents the range of electromagnetic radiation, with different frequencies used for specific applications. o Radio frequencies (measured in hertz, Hz) are assigned by the FCC. o Most wireless networking uses RF frequencies up to 300 GHz, known as the wireless spectrum. o Common unlicensed frequencies include 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 5.8 GHz, used for devices like cordless phones, garage door openers, Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth. Data Transmission Methods 1. Bandwidth: Measures the amount of data transmitted over a period, expressed in bits per second (bps). 2. Analog vs. Digital Signals: o Analog: Continuous waves (used in telephony). o Digital: Data represented by binary (0s and 1s). 3. Delivery Methods: o Circuit-Switching: A dedicated path for data transmission (e.g., telephone networks). o Packet-Switching: Messages broken into packets and sent separately across the internet. o Broadcasting: Data sent to all network nodes, retrieved only by the intended recipient. Advanced Transmission Techniques 1. Cellular Radio Transmissions: o Uses cell towers, transferring calls as the user moves from one cell to another. 2. Microwave and Satellite Transmissions: o High-frequency signals sent through microwave stations or satellites. o Microwave stations need a clear line of sight and are typically used for long- distance communication. o Communication Satellites: Utilize geostationary orbits for data transmission. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites provide specialized services (like GPS). 3. Infrared (IR) Transmissions: o Uses infrared light waves, limited by the requirement of line-of-sight, but still applied in remote controls and some short-range communication devices. Theme 4 (2): Internet and Intranets What is the Internet? The internet has fundamentally transformed our lives. Definition: The internet is a vast network of interconnected networks, owned by no single entity but shared by everyone. No central authority controls the content stored on any part of the internet. Evolution of the Internet In 1969, the U.S. Department of Defense initiated a project to electronically connect government scientists at various universities across the United States. The goal was to facilitate the fast, secure sharing of information. This project, later called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), began in a computer lab at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Information transmitted over ARPANET was sent in packets, which included the destination and sender’s addresses as well as error-checking data. Eventually, 500 universities used ARPANET, which was later renamed the internet and handed over to the National Science Foundation for administration. What is an Intranet? An intranet is an internal network built using the same standards and technologies as the internet and World Wide Web. It allows users within an organization to access the organization's internal information and resources. Intranet technology is typically employed in local area networks (LANs) to provide services like email, web pages, and other communication tools to members of the organization. Unlike the internet, access to an intranet is restricted to those within the organization. Outsiders cannot connect to it. How is the Internet Different from an Intranet? The internet connects many networks globally and is open for access by countless organizations and individuals worldwide. It serves the entire global community. An intranet, in contrast, is limited to a single organization. Permissions and access are restricted to individuals within that specific organization. Both the internet and intranets use the same protocols, standards, technologies, and procedures. However, an intranet operates exclusively within the organization's private environment. Summary of Theme 4 (3): Internet and Intranet Security Why Be Concerned About Network and Internet Security? The internet is susceptible to various threats, making security a significant concern for all users. Cybercrimes include: Theft of Financial Assets: Unauthorized transfer or use of funds. Manipulating Data: Altering data for personal benefit. Acts of Sabotage: Releasing viruses or shutting down systems. Phishing and Internet Scams: Tricking people into giving up personal information. Unauthorized Access and Unauthorized Use Unauthorized Access: Gaining entry to a computer, network, or file without permission. Unauthorized Use: Using resources for activities not approved by the system owner. Both types of violations can be committed by insiders (employees) or outsiders (hackers). Methods include: Hacking: Breaking into systems, threatening individuals, businesses, or even national security through cyberterrorism. War Driving: Driving around to locate and access unsecured Wi-Fi networks. Wi-Fi Piggybacking: Accessing someone else's Wi-Fi without permission. Interception of Communications Unsecured information like messages, files, or login details can be intercepted by cybercriminals using specialized software. A growing concern is the interception of credit and debit card information during the verification process. Protection Against Unauthorized Access and Use Various systems and methods are used to prevent unauthorized access, including: Access Control Systems: Control access to facilities, networks, databases, and online accounts. Identification Systems: Verify if a user attempting to access a resource is authorized. Authentication Systems: Ensure that a user is who they claim to be. Types of Access Control Systems Possessed Knowledge Access Systems: Rely on something the user knows, such as passwords. Disadvantages: Passwords can be forgotten or stolen. Cognitive Authentication Systems: Use personal knowledge (e.g., birthplace, pet names) for identity verification. Often used for password recovery. Two-Factor Authentication: Combines two methods: something you are (biometric) and something you have (object). Example: Username/password plus a one-time password generated by an access card. Possessed Object Access Systems: Use physical objects like smart cards, magnetic cards, or RFID-encoded badges. Disadvantages: These objects can be lost or stolen. Biometric Access Systems: Use unique biological traits like fingerprints, voice, or iris scans for identification. Advantages: Difficult to replicate and can only be used by the rightful person. Disadvantages: Expensive and cannot be reset if compromised. Controlling Access to Wireless Networks Wireless networks, especially Wi-Fi, are more vulnerable than wired ones. Precautions include: Enable encryption (WPA is more secure than WEP). Do not broadcast the SSID (network name). Enable additional security features as needed. Firewalls, Encryption, and VPNs Firewalls: Protect computers or networks from unauthorized access by blocking unwanted traffic. Essential for both home users and businesses. Firewalls close external communication ports to prevent hackers from accessing the system. Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS): Monitors network traffic and blocks potential attacks in real time. Encryption: Scrambles data to make it unreadable to unauthorized parties. Private Key Encryption: Uses a single key for both encryption and decryption. The sender and receiver must agree on the key in advance. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Create a secure tunnel over the internet, allowing users to remotely and securely access a private network. Used by businesses for secure remote access and by individuals to protect privacy when using public networks. Public Hotspot Precautions When using public Wi-Fi hotspots, additional security precautions are necessary, including: Security software. Secured web pages (using HTTPS). Use of VPNs and file encryption to ensure safe browsing. Theme 4 (4): Copyright, Censorship, Privacy Do You Believe Everything You Read? Evaluation of Information Resources Information on the web must be carefully evaluated for accuracy. No central authority oversees the content of web pages, making evaluation essential. Intellectual Property Rights, Copyright, and Piracy A large portion of online content is protected by copyright legislation. Privacy is a growing concern for internet users, especially with reports that some websites covertly collect personal data. Piracy involves the reproduction and distribution of copyright-protected materials, or making such materials available online without proper authorization. Piracy can include: o Music o Literature o Films o Software o Video games o Broadcast programs and signals Security and Privacy Security of networked home devices is becoming a significant issue. Attacks on these devices are becoming increasingly sophisticated. Users must protect themselves from: o Privacy breaches (confidentiality issues) o Data destruction (availability issues) o Data manipulation (integrity issues) Censorship and Privacy Issues Censorship Some countries block access to specific internet content to: o Suppress political opposition. o Filter offensive material. o Protect national security.  Other countries attempt to regulate internet content, which raises challenges like defining terms such as "patently offensive" or "indecent." Internet Filtering Software or browser options can block access to certain web pages. Used by: o Individuals o Schools o Employers o Public computers Why Be Concerned About Information Privacy and Censorship? Privacy Refers to the state of being free from unauthorized intrusion. Information Privacy Rights of individuals and companies to control how their information is collected and used. Computers Add Additional Privacy Challenges Cookies and spyware pose potential privacy risks. Recent data breaches have been caused by: o Lost or stolen hardware. o Carelessness with sensitive documents. Businesses must be mindful of the costs, damage to reputation, and potential lawsuits. Spam, Electronic Surveillance, and Electronic Monitoring Spam includes unsolicited, bulk email, often involving fraudulent or inappropriate products. Electronic surveillance refers to monitoring computer usage, video surveillance, and tracking through devices like GPS and proximity cards. Web Browsing Privacy Concerns about what personal information is available, how it is used, and by whom.  Cookies are small files stored on the user’s hard drive, often used to track web activity and identify return visitors. Cookies can be personally identifiable or non-personally identifiable, and their data can be managed or deleted by users. Spyware Software installed without user knowledge, which secretly transmits data via the internet. Used for advertising or criminal purposes to gather personal data. Spyware can be blocked or removed with security software. Adware Software supported by onscreen advertising. Often included in free programs. Does not gather personal data or install without user consent. Email Privacy Only encrypted email can be considered private. Employers and ISPs (Internet Service Providers) can access emails sent through their systems and often archive these messages. Databases, Electronic Profiling, Spam, and Other Marketing Activities Databases and Electronic Profiling Electronic profiling collects detailed personal information, often sold for marketing purposes. Marketing Databases Data from online and offline purchases, social media, and public information is collected for marketing. Government Databases Store data such as tax and social security information. Some data is public, while sensitive data is private. Electronic Profiling and Privacy Policy Summary Electronic Profiling involves collecting detailed personal information through electronic methods, which is often sold to companies for marketing purposes. A Privacy Policy explains how your information will be used, typically included on websites. However, these policies can be changed, sometimes without prior notice. Spam and Other Marketing Activities Spam refers to unsolicited email, often promoting fraudulent products. Spam can appear in various forms, including instant messaging ("spim") and mobile phone messages. Be Cautious of Revealing Personal Information Always read a website’s privacy policy. Avoid disclosing too much personal information online. Use temporary email addresses for free trials. Consider using privacy software to hide personal data while browsing. Secure Servers and Protecting Personal Information Only enter personal information on websites using secure servers. Use encryption systems for sensitive data. Chief Privacy Officer (CPO) Responsible for ensuring that private data stored by businesses is adequately protected. Electronic Surveillance and Monitoring Computer Monitoring Software Used to record an individual's computer usage, including keystrokes and websites visited. This can be used in homes and businesses to monitor activity. Keystroke-logging Programs Capture keystrokes to obtain sensitive information like usernames and passwords. Video Surveillance Common in businesses and public places to monitor activities, often combined with facial recognition technology. Employee Monitoring Employers can monitor employee activities, including location, phone calls, and internet usage. Video cameras, GPS capabilities (in cars or mobile phones), and proximity cards are commonly used for tracking or accessing locations, facilities, or computers. Businesses should inform employees about any monitoring systems in place. Presence Technology Identifies the status of devices on a network, such as determining if someone is using their computer or mobile phone. Protecting Personal and Workspace Privacy Antispyware software can help detect and remove illegal computer monitoring or spyware, ensuring personal and workspace privacy. Employer’s Responsibilities Protect company, employee, and customer information. Safeguard employees from being monitored by unauthorized individuals or hackers. Establish an employee policy informing staff about monitoring activities. Employees' Responsibilities Familiarize themselves with the company's employee monitoring policy. Deep Web The Deep Web refers to content on the internet not indexed by standard search engines. It is used for various activities, some legal and others illegal, such as: o Anonymous purchases with Bitcoin. o Drug trafficking. o Human trafficking. o Pornography. o Black market transactions. o Buying and selling personal information. o Murder for hire. Theme 5: System Development (part1) What Is an Information System? System: A collection of elements and procedures that interact to achieve a goal. Information System: A system designed to generate information to support users in an organization (e.g., ClickUP, Zoom, Google Meet). Components of an Information System The Need for System Development System Development: The process of designing and implementing a new or modified system. Enterprise Architecture Defines how an enterprise is constructed. Provides a detailed overview of an organization, its functions, systems, and their interrelationships. Helps managers maximize IT resource use and make informed decisions. Requires significant time and effort to develop, but is invaluable for decision-making. Business Intelligence (BI) BI: Processes, technologies, and tools for gathering, storing, accessing, and analyzing company data. o Data Mart: A collection of data related to a specific subject or department. o Data Warehouse: A comprehensive collection of data about a company and its customers. Information System Overview An information system is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information. It comprises four components from a sociotechnical perspective: task, people, structure, and technology. Data Mining Uses intelligent software to identify subtle patterns in data. Useful for identifying processes needing improvement and customer profiling. Examples include applications in social media, search engines, and online employment services. Web Mining  Applies data mining techniques to discover patterns from the World Wide Web, used with web data. Text Mining Transforms unstructured text data into meaningful and actionable information through analysis. Information System Users Information systems are widely used, often without user awareness, in daily decision- making. Types of Users: o Individual Users: One person or all employees. o Enterprise Systems Users: Used by all employees in an organization. o Inter-enterprise Systems Users: Involves businesses, suppliers, and partners. o Management Decision Makers: Executive, middle, and operational managers. o External Users: Customers, suppliers, and partners. Types of Information Systems 1. Office and User Productivity Support Systems: Facilitates communication and enhances productivity (e.g., document processing systems). 2. Document Management Systems (DMS): Stores, organizes, and retrieves electronic documents. 3. Content Management Systems (CMS): DMS that includes multimedia files and images. 4. Communication Systems: Enables communication (e.g., email, messaging, videoconferencing). 5. Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): Processes and records business transaction data in real time. 6. Decision Making Support Systems: Helps individuals make decisions. 7. Management Information Systems (MIS): Provides regular, routine information for decision-making. 8. Decision Support Systems (DSS): Offers tools to organize and analyze decision- making information. 9. Executive Information Systems (EIS): A DSS targeted at upper management. 10. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Combines geographical and other data for decision-making (e.g., site selection). 11. Integrated Enterprise Systems: Systems designed to work together across an enterprise. o Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): Transfers data between companies. o Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Integrates all business activities. o Enterprise Application Integration (EAI): Exchanges information from ERP or internal systems. 12. Inventory and Product Management Systems: Manages inventory and optimizes ordering. 13. Supply Chain Management (SCM): Oversees materials, information, and finances from suppliers to consumers. 14. Just-in-Time (JIT): Limits resources to optimal amounts for filling orders. 15. Warehouse Management Systems (WMS): Acts as a comprehensive distribution system. 16. Product Lifecycle Management (PLM): Organizes information about a product from design to retirement. 17. Design and Manufacturing Systems: Automates design and manufacturing functions. 18. Computer-aided Design (CAD): Automates design functions. 19. Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM): Automates manufacturing functions. 20. Artificial Intelligence Systems: Performs tasks characteristic of human intelligence. 21. Neural Networks: Emulates the brain’s pattern-recognition processes (used in various fields like biometric identification). 22. Robotics: Involves robot technology. 23. Military Robots: Used for surveillance, locating explosives, and providing situational awareness (e.g., exoskeleton suits). Theme 5: System Development (part2) The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a project management model used to guide the stages involved in building and completing an information system. It includes the following stages: planning, system analysis, system design, development, implementation, integration and testing, and operations and maintenance. Strengths of SDLC: Control: Offers structured processes. Monitors large projects: Facilitates the management of extensive projects. Detailed steps: Provides well-defined steps for development. Evaluates costs and completion targets: Allows for accurate cost estimations. Documentation: Provides extensive documentation for reference. Well-defined user input: Ensures user requirements are considered. Ease of maintenance: Supports easier ongoing system maintenance. Development standards: Promotes development and design standards. Tolerates staffing changes: Can handle changes in management information systems (MIS) or staffing. Weaknesses of SDLC: Increased development time and costs: Can be time-consuming and expensive. Upfront system definition: Requires systems to be fully defined before development. Rigidity: Limited flexibility to changes during the project. Hard to estimate costs: Difficulty in predicting exact costs and project durations. Limited user input: Sometimes restricts user input during the process. Limited automation: Has limited automation for documentation and standards. Does not tolerate changes: Struggles to handle changes in requirements. Risk of low value from early project cancellation: Projects stopped early may yield little to no value. 1. Preliminary Investigation Feasibility Study: Assesses whether to proceed with a full-scale project. Documentation: Feasibility Report includes: o Findings on the existing system's status. o Benefits and feasibility of transitioning to a new system. o Recommendations from system analysts regarding project continuation. 2. System Analysis Examines Problem Area: Determines necessary actions.  a) Data Collection: Gathers information through organizational charts, observations, and user interviews. b) Data Analysis: Analyzes information to evaluate the current system's effectiveness and requirements for new or modified systems. c) Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERDs) and Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs): Models entities and data flow, providing a visual representation of data movement in an organization. d) Decision Tables and Decision Trees: Summarize the decision-making processes involved in system steps. e) Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN): Graphical notation for modeling business processes, easily understood by all stakeholders. Utilizes diagrams similar to flow charts. f) Class Diagrams and Use Case Diagrams: Tools for modeling object-oriented systems. g) Documentation: Includes diagrams, tables, trees, and models created during analysis, as well as any data-gathering instruments like questionnaires and interview questions. 3. System Design Specifies System Appearance and Functionality: Develops design and specifications. o Cost Benefit Analysis: Assesses both tangible and intangible benefits against costs. o Documentation: System design/specifications include all necessary documentation to illustrate the new system. Difference between Input and Output Design: Input Design: Screen design for data input. Output Design: Screen design for displaying data output. 4. System Acquisition System Analysts' Role: Determine sources for necessary hardware, software, and components. a) Make-or-Buy Decision: Decides whether software will be purchased or developed in-house, moving to program development if developed internally. Types of Software: Custom Software: Tailored to meet specifications within time and budget. Installed Software: Installed on computers with limited customization.  Web-based Software: Accessible via the internet with some customization options. RFPs and RFQs: o RFP (Request for Proposal): Contains technical specifications for required equipment, software, and services. o RFQ (Request for Quotation): Names desired items and requests quotes. Evaluating Bids: Companies typically have procedures, including benchmark tests. Documentation: Involves RFPs/RFQs and vendor evaluation materials, including proposals received and documentation from the evaluation process. 5. System Implementation Installation and Testing: New system is installed and tested, employing data migration. Testing Requirements: System must undergo thorough testing with realistic and incorrect test data. Components of System Implementation: a) System Conversion: Transitioning from an old system to a new one via: Direct Conversion: Replacing the old system with the new one immediately. Parallel Conversion: Operating both systems until the new one is confirmed to be functioning properly. Phased Conversion: Implementing the system module by module. Pilot Conversion: Using the new system in one location before broader implementation. b) User Training: Development of training manuals, with training conducted on the actual system, either one-on-one or in groups. c) Documentation: Includes implementation schedules, test data, results, and training materials for future reference. 6. System Maintenance Ongoing Process: Involves making minor adjustments to keep the system operational until its end or redesign. Post-Implementation Review: Identifies glitches needing correction. Major Changes: If needed, the project re-enters the SDLC. Component of System Maintenance: a) Documentation: Completed project folder contains results from the post-implementation review, which can aid auditors in ensuring proper procedures were followed. Approaches to System Development 1. The Traditional Approach Orderly Execution: SDLC phases are completed in a preset sequence: o Preliminary investigation o System analysis o System design o System acquisition o System implementation o System maintenance Important Aspects: a) Known as the Waterfall Model: Each phase commences only after the previous phase is complete. b) Can be time-consuming. 2. The Iterative Approach Incremental Development: System is developed through repeated steps until finalized. Prototyping: A small model (prototype) is created before full-scale development. 3. The End-User Development Approach User-Driven Development: Users primarily handle system development. Applicability: Most feasible for small, inexpensive systems. Compatibility Measures: Ensures new systems align with existing systems and avoid introducing new issues. Theme 6: Ethical Issues for an Information Age Why Does Ethics Matter in the Information Age? Information and information technology have become synonymous with everyday life. It is very difficult to be a functioning member of society without information technology. Much of the information technology used daily is owned by private organizations that may not prioritize the well-being of the end user. These organizations often make decisions harmful to the environment and users to maximize profit. Examples In 2019, it was discovered that Google workers could listen to private conversations through the Google Assistant device. In 2021, Microsoft made switching default browsers difficult to force users to use Edge. Google blocks transactions on apps from their Play Store to compel companies to pay a portion of their profits. Apple is being forced by the EU to change their proprietary charger to Type-C. Foundational Concepts of Information Ethics (IE) Mason (1986) identified four key issues involved with moral and ethical conduct in an information age: o Privacy o Accuracy o Property o Access A fifth issue, Security, has been identified due to recent technological developments. Information Privacy Two forces threaten our privacy: 1. The growth of information technology, enhancing surveillance, communication, computation, storage, and retrieval. 2. The increased value of information in decision-making; policymakers covet information, even if acquiring it invades another's privacy. Where Did the Idea of Privacy Originate? The concept stems from the "right to be left alone." As active participants in society, individuals cannot presume to be left entirely alone. The focus should be on determining what information should be known to others. Privacy in Information Privacy is seen as an individual condition characterized by exclusion from publicity. It is closely related to information, with different categories of privacy: o Private communications o Privacy of the body o Personal information o Information about one’s possessions (related to property rights). Why Is Privacy Important? Associated with concepts of freedom and control over one’s life. Necessary for other rights like freedom and personal authority; thus, there’s a relationship between privacy, freedom, and human dignity. Instrumentally valuable for fostering intimate relationships based on trust. Intrinsically valuable as it contributes to individual uniqueness and humanity; can be viewed as both an individual and social good. Kinds of Privacy The definition of privacy relates to whether it is viewed as a full-fledged right or as interests individuals have. Four main kinds of privacy cannot adequately describe privacy when viewed in isolation: 1. Physical/Accessibility Privacy o Refers to non-intrusion in one's physical space (e.g., not wanting someone to follow you home uninvited). 2. Decisional Privacy o Involves non-interference with personal choices (e.g., healthcare, education, marriage decisions). 3. Psychological/Mental Privacy o Protects intimate thoughts and personal identity from others’ access and manipulation. 4. Informational Privacy o Involves controlling access to personal information (e.g., daily activities, finances, medical history). Four Factors Measuring the Influence of Technology on Privacy 1. The Scale of Information Gathering o The amount of personal information that can be collected; digitization allows for easy and vast data collection. 2. The Speed of Personal Information Exchange o Electronic transfers allow for rapid movement of data, unlike the slower, vehicle-dependent methods of the past. 3. The Duration of Information Retention o Information can now be retained indefinitely, unlike in the past when it was limited by physical storage. 4. The Kind of Information Acquired o The qualitative difference in collected information; for example, ATM withdrawals provide detailed transactional data that can reveal personal patterns and preferences. Theme 6: Ethical issues for an Information Age How Accurate is Information Found on the Internet? The Internet greatly magnifies the tendency to take shortcuts when gathering information. With print media, you can make an informed decision regarding the trustworthiness of what you read. On the Internet, however, anyone can create a webpage that looks very official and authoritative. It is often difficult to differentiate between genuine human errors and hoaxes. Accountability and Unintentional Inaccurate Data (Mason, 1986) Inaccurate information can have disastrous effects on the lives of ordinary people. It focuses on the effects of incorrect or missing data and argues that designers are responsible for ensuring that the information provided is accurate. Intentional Wrong/Inaccurate Information Examples include email chain letters about virus alerts, dying children, and food recalls, raising the question of truth versus urban legend. The Internet allows for a vast audience to spread rumors, facilitated by technology, even if there's often little evidence to support these claims and they are later proven incorrect. Is it enough to prove information incorrect later, or is the damage already done? Do You Believe Everything You Read? Doomsday Fabrication: For example, the Mayan Calendar predictions regarding the world's end in 2012. Fake News: Instances of mockery or inaccurate information, such as "Hayibo" or "Onion News Network." The danger of believing everything you read extends to online classifieds or booking sites. Authenticity and Accuracy of Sources for Study Purposes How do you know when information is accurate and/or credible? Credibility judgments often rely heavily on design and presentation features rather than content. Wikipedia: Traditional encyclopedias are written by experts and monitored by professional editors, while Wikipedia's community is influenced by those with the most time, not necessarily the most knowledge. Larry Sanger, co-founder of Wikipedia, has criticized the platform for its "poisonous social or political atmosphere." The Use of Incorrect and Inaccurate Data in the Scientific Community Issues of fabrication and falsification of data arise in research, alongside misconduct. o Fabrication of Data: Invention, recording, or reporting of data. o Falsification: Alteration of research materials, equipment, protocols, data, or results. Personal Accuracy: Identity Theft Identity theft is a crime where a criminal obtains key personal information, like Social Security numbers or driver's license numbers, to pose as someone else. In the current technological environment, identity theft is a significant issue, as online business transactions require only basic personal details, which can be stolen. Personal Accuracy: Phishing Scams Phishing is a form of fraud where criminals attempt to access confidential information through deceptive emails or fake websites. You should never respond to emails that: o Ask you to enter your User ID, password, or account numbers. o Request confirmation, verification, or updating of account information. o Require you to enter personal information via links in emails. Phishing Scams Example An email example purportedly from Nedbank, containing misspellings and addressed incorrectly, exemplifies common phishing tactics. Intellectual Property According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO, 2012), intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Difference Between Property and Intellectual Property Tangible Property: Includes land, houses, estates, cars, and is easier to establish ownership as it has a physical entity. Intangible Property: Lacks physical representation; ideas or innovations cannot be touched but can manifest in physical forms. Establishing ownership of something intangible is complex. Defining Intellectual Property Rights Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the basic rights of ownership of intellectual property, derived from legislation concerning patents, designs, copyrights, and trademarks. Theme 6: Ethical Issues for an Information Age Defining Intellectual Property Rights Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Basic rights of ownership derived from legislation concerning patents, designs, copyrights, and trademarks. Main Types of Intellectual Property 1. Copyright: Exclusive legal rights for originators or assignees to publish, perform, or record literary, artistic, or musical works. 2. Trademarks: Symbols, words, or phrases legally registered as representing a company or product. 3. Patents: Government authority granting the sole right to make, use, or sell an invention. 4. Industrial Designs: Visual features of shape, configuration, or pattern applied to manufactured articles. 5. Trade Secret: Confidential business information that provides a competitive edge. 6. Geographical Indications: Names or words associated with a place that signify specific quality or characteristics of products (e.g., "Champagne," "Tequila"). Information Access Access vs. Knowledge: Accessing information is not the same as acquiring knowledge; access serves as a means to gain knowledge (Fallis, 2004). Opportunities and Risks: While new technologies enable greater access to information and economic growth, they also pose risks like privacy loss and power abuse. Importance of Literacy: Literacy is crucial in an information society, and innovations demand new literacy skills (Mason, 1986). Digital Divide Definition: The widening gap between those with access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) and those without. Complexity: ICT’s impact is interwoven within social systems and processes; no single factor determines the divide. Information Poverty Definition: Information poverty occurs when individuals lack the skills, abilities, or resources to obtain, interpret, and apply information (Brits, 2004). Characteristics: o Lack of essential information o Insufficient financial capital to access information o Limited technical skills for accessing information o Inadequate intellectual capacity to evaluate and utilize information effectively Freedom of Expression Fundamental Right: Free speech is a vital aspect of a democratic society. Censorship Issues: Censorship restricts access to expression; debates continue regarding the balance between free speech and protection from harmful content. Global Scope: Different nations have varying policies on freedom of access and speech, complicating efforts to manage harmful content online. Information Security Terminology: Historically referred to as data security, IT security, or computer security, but these terms overlook the value of the information itself. Definition: Information security is the protection of information and its critical elements, including systems and hardware (Whitman and Matorro, 2009). Towards a Definition Complexity of Information Systems: Information systems are intricate, consisting of information repositories, interfaces, and channels. Security Quotes: o Gene Spafford: "The only truly secure system is one that is powered off, cast in a block of concrete and sealed in a lead-lined room with armed guards." o William R. Cheswick: "Security is keeping anyone from doing things you do not want them to do to, with, or from your computers or any peripherals." CIA and Derivatives INFOSEC Definition: Security measures ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information system assets (INFOSEC Glossary 2000). Paradigms – The CIA Triad CIA Triad: Information security is characterized by three pillars: 1. Confidentiality: Keeping private data inaccessible to unauthorized individuals. 2. Integrity: Ensuring data consistency and accuracy, preventing unauthorized alterations. 3. Availability: Ensuring authorized users can access data and systems when needed without interference. Theme 6: Ethical Issues for an Information Age Why is Information Security Necessary? We live in an information age where information is a valuable commodity. Technology allows access to information 24/7, making it vulnerable. Just as one would protect a gold bar, information must be secured against theft. Consider the implications of unsecured information, such as the national power grid or the financial records of corporations. Are organizations solely at risk from external threats? What is Ethics? Ethics is a branch of philosophy that examines human conduct and character. Understanding the proper behavior when using information requires distinguishing between morals, ethics, and law. Morals Morals refer to a system of principles that guide humans in deciding right from wrong. These principles vary by culture and group, influencing daily behavior. Law Law consists of rules of conduct established and enforced by state authority for specific situations. Computer Ethics Human beings have developed guidelines for ethical conduct over time. Walter Maner defines computer ethics as the study of ethical problems created or transformed by computer technology. Conversely, Johnson (1985) argues that computer ethics issues are old moral dilemmas given new context by technology, emphasizing the need to apply traditional moral norms in new realms. The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics 1. Thou shalt not interfere with the works and files of others. 2. Thou shalt not sneak around in others' computer files. 3. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal or engage in negative activities. 4. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. 5. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software without payment. 6. Thou shalt not use others' computer resources without authorization or compensation.  7. Thou shalt not appropriate others' intellectual output. 8. Thou shalt consider the social consequences of your programming or system design. 9. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm others. 10. Thou shalt use a computer in ways that ensure respect and consideration for fellow humans. The Human-Values Approach A consistent theme in computer ethics is the protection and advancement of human values, such as life, health, security, happiness, freedom, knowledge, resources, power, and opportunity. This approach can help prevent issues like massive unemployment caused by automation. The concept of "value-sensitive computer design" suggests that potential ethical problems can be avoided by considering human values during technology development. Are ICT Ethical Issues Unique? Traditional views hold that ICT ethics are not unique, as concerns like privacy and accountability predate modern technology. However, arguments exist for the unique aspects of ICT ethics: 1. ICTs have created new entities (e.g., software, websites). 2. ICTs have drastically changed the scale of operations (e.g., data collection). 3. ICTs have led to the development of new machines and knowledge. 4. ICTs require new approaches to risk and liability due to their unreliability. 5. The transformative power of ICTs parallels the impact of the industrial revolution. Information Ethics In 1995, Krystyna Górniak-Kocikowska posited that computer and information ethics could establish a global ethic for the Information Age. The global nature of computers necessitates a universal approach to ethics in the digital realm. Information Ethics Overview Information ethics is a branch of applied ethics that examines the moral implications of handling information in the context of ICTs. It addresses ethical dilemmas related to information across various domains, including: o The Internet o Computer science o Biological and medical sciences  o Mass media o Library and information science o Business Foundations of Information Ethics Mason (1986) identified four key ethical issues in the information age: 1. Privacy: What personal information should be disclosed, and what should remain confidential? 2. Accuracy: How can individuals be protected against inaccuracies in information? 3. Property: Who owns data and knowledge, and how is ownership determined? 4. Access: Who can access information, and what should be considered public versus restricted? Freeman and Peace (2005) emphasized that these issues remain relevant despite technological advancements, highlighting security as a crucial ethical concern. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Code of Conduct The ACM code includes principles such as: Contributing to society and human well-being Avoiding harm to others Being honest and trustworthy Ensuring fairness and non-discrimination Honoring property rights, including copyrights and patents Giving proper credit for others' intellectual property Respecting individual privacy rights Maintaining confidentiality Standards of Conduct in ICT Key standards include: Acting with integrity Protecting organizational information privacy and confidentiality Avoiding misinformation or withholding information Not misusing resources or exploiting system vulnerabilities Preserving intellectual property rights Computer Ethics Topics Understanding computer ethics involves examining representative examples, such as: Computers in the workplace Computer crime Privacy and anonymity Intellectual property Professional responsibility Globalization.