Motor Learning Review PDF

Motor Learning Review Motor Learning Defined Motor learning is a set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent gains in the capability for skilled performance Not all changes in performance are due to learning! Learning: Results from...

Motor Learning Review Motor Learning Defined Motor learning is a set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent gains in the capability for skilled performance Not all changes in performance are due to learning! Learning: Results from practice or experience Is not directly observable Involves a set of processes in the central nervous system Changes are inferred from certain performance changes Produces an acquired capability for skilled performance Changes are relatively permanent, not transitory Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Limitations of Performance Curves Performance curves are not learning curves Between-subject effects are masked Within-subject variability is masked 3 Average time on target (min) 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Blocks of four 1-min trials Adapted from Schmidt & Lee (2011) Motor Control and Learning Transfer Designs Essential features of transfer designs Allow sufficient time for the supposed temporary effects of practice to dissipate Evaluate learners again in a transfer or retention test, with all groups performing under identical conditions Any differences observed in a transfer test are due to a difference in the relatively permanent capability for performance acquired during earlier practice Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Transfer of Learning Transfer, closely related to learning, is seen when practice on one task contributes to performance capability in some other task Positive vs. Negative Positive: practice facilitates performance Negative: practice degrades performance Specific vs. Generalized Specific (transfer to specific task): Measured by delayed retention tests on that task Generalized (transfer to relatively different tasks): Measured by transfer test Near transfer is transfer of learning from one task or setting to another that is very similar Far transfer is transfer of learning from one task to another very different task or setting Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Did we learn? Let’s find out… 1. In a transfer design, the temporary effect of the variable must be a) Retained b) Transferred to a similar task c) Transferred to a very different task d) Allowed to dissipate 2. One limitation in the usefulness of performance curves is that they a) Reflect the law of practice b) Can either increase or decrease with practice c) Do not measure relatively permanent changes d) Can plot individual or average performance against practice trials Did we learn? Let’s find out… 3. Which of the following processes is NOT thought to be influenced by practice? a) Increased cognitive demand b) Increased automaticity c) Improvements in action selection d) The building of more effective generalized motor programs 4. It is useful to define learning in terms of the gain in underlying __________ for skilled performance developed during practice. a) Abilities b) Capability c) Motor learning d) Motor skills Did we learn? Let’s find out… 5. When learners are trained to develop general capabilities for a variety of skills, a __________ test is most appropriate for evaluating the effects of practice. a) Near transfer b) Far transfer c) Specific transfer (retention) d) Negative transfer The Motor Learning Process Skill Acquisition Practice In general, more practice produces more learning Practice is more than just repetition Deliberate practice is effortful, oriented towards goal-attainment, and actively uses augmented feedback to improve performance Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Specificity of Learning Suggests that what you learn depends largely on what you practice Practicing in a particular environment or workspace often leads to better performance, mainly in that workspace The sensory feedback resulting from performance during specific types of practice becomes part of the learned representation for skill Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Learning Vs. Performance During Practice The learner who attempts to always perform as well as possible in practice tends to be inhibited from modifying movements from attempt to attempt Providing both practice sessions and test sessions during practice can help overcome the detriment to learning Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Benefits of Practice Improved: ˗ Capability to perform some skill on future demand ˗ Perceptual skills ˗ Attention through reduced capacity demands and reduced effector competition ˗ Motor programs ˗ Error detection V vs. γ Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Benefits of Practice Improved: ˗ Capability to perform some skill on future demand ˗ Perceptual skills ˗ Attention through reduced capacity demands and reduced effector competition ˗ Motor programs ˗ Error detection Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Stages of Learning Fitts’ stages Designed to consider perceptual–motor learning Heavy emphasis on how the cognitive processes invested in motor performance change as a function of practice Bernstein’s stages From a combined motor control and biomechanical perspective Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Fitts’ Stage 1: Cognitive Stage Concerns goal identification, performance evaluation, what to do, and when to do it Verbal and cognitive abilities dominate, and verbalizable information is useful Gains in proficiency are very rapid and large, indicating that more effective strategies are being discovered Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Fitts’ Stage 2: Fixation Stage The learner’s focus shifts to organizing more effective movement patterns In skills requiring quick movements, the learner begins to build a motor program In slower movements, the learner constructs ways to use movement-produced feedback Inconsistency gradually decreases Enhanced efficiency reduces energy costs Self-talk becomes less important Learners begin to monitor their own feedback and detect their errors Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Fitts’ Stage 3: Autonomous Stage Usually associated with the attainment of expert performance Decreased attention demanded by perceptual and motor processes Allows for simultaneous performance of higher-order cognitive activities Self-confidence increases Capability to detect and correct one’s own errors becomes more fine-tuned Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Bernstein’s Stage 1: Reduce Degrees of Freedom The initial problem is what to do with all of the possible degrees of freedom of movement that are available for the body Solution is to reduce the movement of nonessential or redundant body parts in the initial stage of learning by freezing degrees of freedom Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Bernstein’s Stage 2: Release Degrees of Freedom The learner attempts to improve performance by releasing some of the degrees of freedom that had initially been frozen Useful in tasks that require power or speed because it could allow for faster and greater accumulation of forces Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Bernstein’s Stage 3: Exploit Passive Dynamics The performer learns to exploit the passive dynamics of the body The movement becomes maximally skilled in terms of effectiveness (achieving the result with maximum assuredness) and efficiency (minimum outlay of energy) Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Limitations of Fitts’ and Bernstein’s Stages Neither was meant to describe learning as a series of discrete, nonlinear, and unidirectional stages Fitts considered performance change to be regressive as well as progressive Task differences also play an important role in the stage views of both Fitts and Bernstein This Photo by Unknown Author https://www.pinterest.ca/pi is licensed under CC BY n/473933560759305836/ Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Constraints-Led Approach to Learning Does not highlight stages of progress Certain features act as boundaries to performance Motor-learning discovery process is shaped by constraints Organismic, environmental, and task constraints Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Skill Retention Forgetting Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Forgetting Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Forgetting Long-term retention depends largely on the nature of the task Discrete tasks (especially those with a relatively large cognitive component) are forgotten relatively quickly Continuous tasks are retained very well over long periods of no practice The amount of original practice will influence the relative amount of retention for these tasks Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Warm-Up Decrement Warm-up decrement refers to a specific type of retention deficit due to the loss of an activity set Set is a collection of psychological activities, states, or processes that are appropriate for and support performance while an activity is ongoing Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Skill Transfer Transfer and Similarity Transfer between skills depends on the concept of similarity among skills, which involves several classes of common features: Movement patterning Perceptual elements Strategic or conceptual elements Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Transfer of Part Practice to Whole Performance Some skills are very complex, and the instructor cannot present all aspects of the skill at once for practice An approach is to Divide the task into meaningful units for separate part practice Integrate the units into the whole skill for later performance Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Principles of Part Practice For very slow, serial tasks with no component interaction, part practice on the difficult elements is very efficient For very brief, programmed actions, practice on the parts in isolation is seldom useful and can be detrimental to learning The more the components of a task interact with each other, the less the effectiveness of part practice Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Simulation and Transfer A simulator is a practice device designed to mimic features of a real- world task Can be an important part of an instructional program if skill is expensive or dangerous, where facilities are limited, or where real practice is not feasible This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Simulation and Transfer Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Let’s Review! 1. Which of the following examples illustrates specificity of learning? a) transferring skills from miniature golf to a golf course b) home-field advantage c) being able to use many types of ATMs d) multitask learning 2. During Fitts' __________ stage of learning, some learners engage in self-talk about the actual physical performance. a) cognitive b) associative c) autonomous d) degrees of freedom Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Let’s Review! 3. In Bernstein's final stage of learning, movement becomes maximally skilled in terms of __________. a) effectiveness and efficiency b) the general idea of movement and degrees of freedom c) decision making and degrees of freedom d) using motivation and efficiency 4. Overcoming the negative effects of __________ is part of the reason preperformance routines contribute to successful performance. a) freezing degrees of freedom b) overlearning c) releasing degrees of freedom d) the warm-up decrement 5. Part practice is most effective for __________ skills when the parts are performed relatively independently. a) open b) discrete c) serial d) continuous Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance Learning Objectives Explain the principles of the skill acquisition process Describe different models that explain the stages of learning during skill acquisition Discuss factors that influence the retention of skills after periods of no practice Discuss factors that influence the transfer of skills to new tasks or performance situations Schmidt & Lee (2020) Motor Learning and Performance