10th Geography NCERT Highlighted PDF

The process of transformation of things Can you identify and name the various items used in making life comfortable in our available in our environment involves an villages and towns. List the items and name inter -...

The process of transformation of things Can you identify and name the various items used in making life comfortable in our available in our environment involves an villages and towns. List the items and name inter - dependent relationship between the material used in their making. nature, technology and institutions. Human beings interact with nature through technology and create institutions to Everything available in our environment accelerate their economic development. which can be used to satisfy our needs, Do you think that resources are free gifts provided, it is technologically accessible, of nature as is assumed by many? They economically feasible and culturally are not. Resources are a function of human acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’. activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources. They transform material available in our environment into resources and use them. These resources can be classified in the following ways – (a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic (b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable (c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship between (d) On the basis of status of development – nature, technology and institutions potential, developed stock and reserves. Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources 2015-16  playgrounds in urban areas are de facto Identify at least two resources from each accessible to all the people living there. category. National Resources: Technically, all the resources belong to the nation. The country TYPES OF R ESOURCES has legal powers to acquire even private property for public good. You might have seen On the Basis of Origin roads, canals, railways being constructed on Biotic Resources: These are obtained from fields owned by some individuals. Urban biosphere and have life such as human beings, Development Authorities get empowered by the flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc. government to acquire land. All the minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, land within Abiotic Resources: All those things which are the political boundaries and oceanic area upto composed of non-living things are called abiotic 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the coast resources. For example, rocks and metals. termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation. On the Basis of Exhaustibility Renewable Resources: The resources Inter national Resources: There ar e which can be renewed or reproduced by international institutions which regulate some physical, chemical or mechanical processes resources. The oceanic resources beyond 200 are known as renewable or replenishable nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open ocean and no individual resources. For example, solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc. The country can utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions. renewable resource may further be divided into continuous or flow (Fig.1.2). Non-Renewable Resources: These occur over a very long geological time. Minerals and fossil Do you know that India has got the right to fuels are examples of such resources. These mine manganese nodules from the bed of resources take millions of years in their the Indian Ocean from that area which lies formation. Some of the resources like metals beyond the exclusive economic zone. Identify are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot some other resources which are international be recycled and get exhausted with their use. in nature. On the Basis of Ownership On the Basis of the Status of Development Individual Resources: These are also owned Potential Resources: Resources which are privately by individuals. Many farmers own found in a region, but have not been utilised. land which is allotted to them by government For example, the western parts of India against the payment of revenue. In villages particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have there are people with land ownership but there enormous potential for the development of wind are many who are landless. Urban people own and solar energy, but so far these have not been plots, houses and other property. Plantation, developed properly. pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc. are Developed Resources: Resources which are some of the examples of resources ownership surveyed and their quality and quantity have by individuals. Make a list of resources owned been determined for utilisation. The by your household. development of resources depends on Community Owned Resources: There are technology and level of their feasibility. resources which are accessible to all the Stock: Materials in the environment which members of the community. Village commons have the potential to satisfy human needs but (grazing grounds, burial grounds, village human beings do not have the appropriate ponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots, technology to access these, are included among 2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 stock. For example, water is a compound of An equitable distribution of resources has two inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen, become essential for a sustained quality of life which can be used as a rich source of energy. and global peace. If the present trend of resource But we do not have the required technical depletion by a few individuals and countries ‘know-how’ to use them for this purpose. continues, the future of our planet is in danger. Hence, it can be considered as stock. Therefore, resource planning is essential for Reserves are the subset of the stock, which sustainable existence of all forms of life. can be put into use with the help of existing Sustainable existence is a component of technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not sustainable development. been started. These can be used for meeting future requirements. River water can be used Sustainable development for generating hydroelectric power but Sustainable economic development means presently, it is being utilised only to a limited ‘development should take place without extent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc. damaging the environment, and development is a reserve which can be used in the future. in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.’ Prepare a list of stock and reserve, resources that you are familiar with from your local area. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992 DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first Resources are vital for human survival as well International Earth Summit. The Summit was as for maintaining the quality of life. It was convened for addressing urgent problems of believed that resources are free gifts of nature. environmental protection and socio- As a result, human beings used them economic development at the global level. indiscriminately and this has led to the The assembled leaders signed the following major problems. Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Depletion of resources for satisfying the Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention greed of few individuals. endorsed the global Forest Principles and Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, adopted Agenda 21 for achieving in turn, divided the society into two segments Sustainable Development in the 21st century. i.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor. Agenda 21 Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global It is the declaration signed by world leaders warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental in 1992 at the United Nations Conference pollution and land degradation. on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It aims at achieving global sustainable 1. Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhausted development. It is an agenda to combat one day, how would this affect our life style? environmental damage, poverty, disease 2. Plan a survey in your colony/village to through global co-operation on common investigate people’s attitude towards interests, mutual needs and shared recycling of the domestic/agricultural responsibilities. One major objective of the wastes. Ask questions about : Agenda 21 is that every local government (a) What do they think about resources should draw its own local Agenda 21. they use? (b) What is their opinion about the RESOURCE PLANNING wastes, and its utilisation? (c) Collage your results. Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has importance RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 3 2015-16 in a country like India, which has enormous The availability of resources is a necessary diversity in the availability of resources. There condition for the development of any region, but are regions which are rich in certain types of mere availability of resources in the absence of resources but are deficient in some other corresponding changes in technology and resources. There are some regions which can institutions may hinder development. There are be considered self sufficient in terms of the many regions in our country that are rich in availability of resources and there are some resources but these are included in economically regions which have acute shortage of some vital backward regions. On the contrary there are resources. For example, the states of some regions which have a poor resource base Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya but they are economically developed. Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Can you name some resource rich but Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water economically backward regions and some resources but lacks in infrastructural resource poor but economically developed development. The state of Rajasthan is very well regions? Give reasons for such a situation. endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks The history of colonisation reveals that rich in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of the resources in colonies were the main attractions country. It has very rich cultural heritage but for the foreign invaders. It was primarily the higher level of technological development of the it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource colonising countries that helped them to exploit resources of other regions and establish planning at the national, state, regional and local levels. their supremacy over the colonies. Therefore, resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate technological development and institutional Prepare a list of resources found in your state changes. India has experienced all this in and also identify the resources that are different phases of colonisation. Therefore, in important but deficit in your state. India, development, in general, and resource development in particular does not only involve Resource Planning in India the availability of resources, but also the technology, quality of human resources and Resource planning is a complex process which involves : (i) identification and inventory of the historical experiences of the people. resources across the regions of the country. Conservation of Resources: Resources are This involves surveying, mapping and vital for any developmental activity. But qualitative and quantitative estimation and irrational consumption and over-utilisation measurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving a of resources may lead to socio-economic and planning structure endowed with appropriate environmental problems. To overcome these technology, skill and institutional set up for problems, resource conservation at various implementing resource development plans. (iii) levels is important. This had been the main Matching the resource development plans with concern of the leaders and thinkers in the overall national development plans. past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in India has made concerted efforts for achieving voicing his concern about resource the goals of resource planning right from the First conservation in these words: “There is enough Five Year Plan launched after Independence. for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.” He placed the greedy and selfish individuals and exploitative nature of modern What resources are being developed in your technology as the root cause for resource surroundings by the community/village depletion at the global level. He was against panchayats/ward level communities with the mass production and wanted to replace it with help of community participation? the production by the masses. 4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16  At the international level, the Club of Rome LAND UTILISATION advocated resource conservation for the first Land resources are used for the following time in a more systematic way in 1968. Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy purposes: was once again presented by Schumacher 1. Forests in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal 2. Land not available for cultivation contribution with respect to resource (a) Barren and waste land conservation at the global level was made (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987. buildings, roads, factories, etc. This report introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated 3. Other uncultivated land (excluding it as a means for resource conservation, fallow land) which was subsequently published in a book (a) Permanent pastures and grazing land, entitled Our Common Future. Another (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops significant contribution was made at the Earth groves (not included in net sown area), Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. (c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years). LAND R ESOURCES 4. Fallow lands We live on land, we perform our economic (a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for activities on land and we use it in different ways. one or less than one agricultural year), Thus, land is a natural resource of utmost (b) Other than current fallow-(left importance. It supports natural vegetation, wild uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 life, human life, economic activities, transport agricultural years). and communication systems. However, land is 5. Net sown area an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it is Area sown more than once in an important to use the available land for various agricultural year plus net sown area is purposes with careful planning. known as gross cropped area. India has land under a variety of relief features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains LAND USE P ATTERN IN I NDIA and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture The use of land is determined both by physical and industry. Mountains account for 30 per factors such as topography, climate, soil types cent of the total surface area of the country and as well as human factors such as population ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide density, technological capability and culture facilities for tourism and ecological aspects. and traditions etc. About 27 per cent of the area of the country is Total geographical area of India is 3.28 the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves million sq km. Land use data, however, is of minerals, fossil fuels and forests. available only for 93 per cent of the total geographical area because the land use reporting for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully. Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed. Try to do a comparison between the two pie charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find out why the net sown area and the land under forests have changed from 1960-61 Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief Features to 2008-09 very marginally. RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 5 2015-16  Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2008-09 Fig. 1.4 The land under permanent pasture has Policy (1952). It was considered essential for also decreased. How are we able to feed our maintenance of the ecological balance. The huge cattle population on this pasture land livelihood of millions of people who live on and what are the consequences of it? Most of the fringes of these forests depends upon it. the other than the current fallow lands are either A part of the land is termed as waste land of poor quality or the cost of cultivation of such and land put to other non-agricultural uses. land is very high. Hence, these lands are Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert cultivated once or twice in about two to three areas and land put to other non-agricultural years and if these are included in the net sown uses includes settlements, roads, railways, area then the percentage of NSA in India comes industry etc. Continuous use of land over a to about 54 per cent of the total reporting area. long period of time without taking The pattern of net sown area varies greatly appropriate measures to conserve and from one state to another. It is over 80 per cent manage it, has resulted in land degradation. of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less This, in turn, has serious repercussions on than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, society and the environment. Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands. LAND D EGRADA TION AND CONSERVA TION Find out reasons for the low proportion of MEASURES net sown area in these states. We have shared our land with the past Forest area in the country is far lower than generations and will have to do so with the the desired 33 per cent of geographical area, future generations too. Ninety-five per cent of as it was outlined in the National Forest our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing 6 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 are obtained from land. Human activities have alkalinity in the soil. The mineral processing like not only brought about degradation of land grinding of limestone for cement industry and but have also aggravated the pace of natural calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry forces to cause damage to land. generate huge quantity of dust in the At present, there are about 130 million atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration hectares of degraded land in India. of water into the soil after it settles down on the land. In recent years, industrial effluents as Approximately, 28 per cent of it belongs to the waste have become a major source of land and category of forest degraded area, 56 per cent water pollution in many parts of the country. of it is water eroded area and the rest is affected There are many ways to solve the problems by saline and alkaline deposits. Some human of land degradation. Afforestation and proper activities such as deforestation, over grazing, management of grazing can help to some extent. mining and quarrying too have contributed Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on significantly in land degradation. over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land degradation. Proper management of waste lands, control of mining activities, proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment can reduce land and water degradation in industrial and suburban areas. SOIL AS A RESOURCE Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on Top soil the upper soil layer Subsoil weathered rocks sand and silt clay Fig. 1.5 Substratum weathered parent rock material Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete leaving deep scars and traces of over-burdening. In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha deforestation due to mining have caused severe land degradation. In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Unweathered overgrazing is one of the main reasons for land parent bed rock degradation. In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity and Fig. 1.6: Soil Profile RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 7 2015-16 the earth. The soil is a living system. It takes reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place of millions of years to form soil upto a few cm in the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, soils are more common in piedmont plains vegetation and other forms of life and time are such as Duars, Chos and Terai. important factors in the formation of soil. Apart from the size of their grains or Various forces of nature such as change in components, soils are also described on the temperature, actions of running water, wind and basis of their age. According to their age alluvial glaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contribute soils can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar) to the formation of soil. Chemical and organic and new alluvial (Khadar). The bangar soil has changes which take place in the soil are equally higher concentration of kanker nodules than important. Soil also consists of organic (humus) the Khadar. It has more fine particles and is and inorganic materials (Fig. 1.6). more fertile than the bangar. On the basis of the factors responsible for Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion chemical and physical properties, the soils of of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are India can be classified in different types. ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat Classification of Soils and other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively India has varied relief features, landforms, cultivated and densely populated. Soils in the climatic realms and vegetation types. These drier areas are more alkaline and can be have contributed in the development of various productive after proper treatment and irrigation. types of soils. Black Soil Alluvial Soils These soils are black in colour and are also This is the most widely spread and important known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are made growing cotton and is also known as black of alluvial soil. These have been deposited by cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition three important Himalayan river systems– the along with the parent rock material are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These important factors for the formation of black soil. soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap through a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is also (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan found in the eastern coastal plains particularly plateau and is made up of lava flows. They in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers. Fig. 1.7: Alluvial Soil The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles appear some what bigger in size. In the upper Fig. 1.8: Black Soil 8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 India: Major Soil Types RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 9 2015-16 Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and the soil is low because most of the micro extend in the south east direction along the organisms, particularly the decomposers, like Godavari and the Krishna valleys. bacteria, get destroyed due to high The black soils are made up of extremely temperature. Laterite soils are suitable for fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known cultivation with adequate doses of manures for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition, and fertilizers. These soils are mainly found in they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Odisha and soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents. Assam. After adopting appropriate soil They develop deep cracks during hot weather, conservation techniques particularly in the hilly which helps in the proper aeration of the soil. areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to this soil is very useful for growing tea and work on unless tilled immediately after the first coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra shower or during the pre-monsoon period. Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut. Red and Yellow Soils Arid Soils Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and are generally sandy in texture and saline in southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllow nature. In some areas the salt content is very and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha, high and common salt is obtained by evaporating Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle the water. Due to the dry climate, high Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil the Western Ghats. These soils develop a lacks humus and moisture. The lower horizons reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks the increasing calcium content downwards. The yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons Laterite Soil restrict the infiltration of water. After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has Laterite has been derived from the Latin word been in the case of western Rajasthan. ‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. This is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of Fig. 1.10: Arid Soil Forest Soils These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain Fig. 1.9: Laterite Soil forests are available. The soils texture varies 10 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 according to the mountain environment where they are formed. They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content. The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. The processes of soil formation and Fig. 1.12: Gully Erosion erosion, go on simultaneously and generally there is a balance between the two. Sometimes, water flows as a sheet over large areas down a this balance is disturbed due to human slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away. activities like deforestation, over-grazing, This is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows construction and mining etc., while natural loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind forces like wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion. Soil erosion is also caused due to erosion. The running water cuts through the defective methods of farming. Ploughing in a clayey soils and makes deep channels as wrong way i.e. up and down the slope form gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation channels for the quick flow of water leading to and is known as bad land. In the Chambal soil erosion. basin such lands are called ravines. Sometimes Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called contour ploughing. Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces. Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western and central Himalayas have well developed terrace farming. Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as strip cropping. Planting lines of trees to create shelter also works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are called shelter belts. These shelter belts have contributed significantly to the stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in Fig. 1.11: Soil Erosion western India. State of India’s Environment The village of Sukhomajri and the district of Jhabua have shown that it is possible to reverse land degradation. Tree density in Sukhomajri increased from 13 per hectare in 1976 to 1,272 per hectare in 1992; Regeneration of the environment leads to economic well-being, as a result of greater resource availability, improved agriculture and animal care, and RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 11 2015-16  consequently, increased incomes. Average annual household income in Sukhomajri ranged from Rs 10,000-15,000 between 1979 and 1984; People’s management is essential for ecological restoration. With people being made the decision-makers by the Madhya Pradesh government, 2.9 million hectares or about 1 per cent of India’s land area, are being greened across the state through watershed management. Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report,1999 Centre of Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi E XERCISES E XERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES E XERCISES 1. Multiple choice questions. (i) Which one of the following type of resource is iron ore? (a) Renewable (c) Flow (b) Biotic (d) Non-renewable (ii) Under which of the following type of resource can tidal energy be put? (a) Replenishable (c) Abiotic (b) Human-made (d) Non-recyclable (iii) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab? (a) Intensive cultivation (c) Over irrigation (b) Deforestation (d) Overgrazing (iv) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised? (a) Punjab (c) Haryana (b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d) Uttarakhand (v) In which of the following states is black soil found? (a) Jammu and Kashmir (c) Rajasthan (b) Gujarat (d) Jharkhand 12 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words. (i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it. (ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three main features of this type of soil. (iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas? (iv) What are the biotic and abiotic resources? Give some examples. 3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words. (i) Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not increased much since 1960-61? (ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources? P ROJECT/A CTIVITY 1. Make a project showing consumption and conservation of resources in your locality. 2. Have a discussion in the class – how to conserve various resources used in your school. 3. Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this affect our life style? 4. Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden answers. S F G S F O B R O M S U A P J Q G A F F O R E S T A T I O N P N R E C P R S L D M I L N F S N A T Q X U O V A I O L A L O D E I D R J U J L D B N B D T G H M I N E R A L S A X M W B V J K M E D C R U P F M H R L A T E R I T E M V A Z T V L A B Z O E N M F T I S D L R C C G N N S Z I O P A X T Y J H K J G K D T D C S L S E G E W (i) Natural endowments in the for m of land, water, vegetation and minerals. (ii) A type of non-renewable resource. (iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity. (iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate. (v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion. (vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils. RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 13 2015-16  Flora and Fauna in India Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music If you look around, you will be able to find in the world of Lepchas that there are some animals and plants which Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate are unique in your area. In fact, India is one myself to you of the world’s richest countries in terms of Let me gather your music from the its vast array of biological diversity, and has springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests, nearly 8 per cent of the total number of the insects and the animals species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 Let me gather your music from the sweet million). This is possibly twice or thrice the breeze and offer it to you number yet to be discovered. You have already studied in detail about the extent Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of and variety of forest and wildlife resources West Bengal in India. Yo u m a y h a v e realised the importance of these resources in our daily life. These diverse flora and fauna are so We share this planet with millions of other well integrated in our daily life that we take living beings, starting from micro-organisms these for granted. But, lately, they are under and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, great stress mainy due to insensitivity to elephants and blue whales. This entire our environment. habitat that we live in has immense biodiversity. We humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000 system in which we are only a part and very species of flora are found in this country much dependent on this system for our own so far? Of the estimated 47,000 plant existence. For example, the plants, animals species, about 15,000 flowering species and micro-organisms re-create the quality of are endemic (indigenous) to India. the air we breathe, the water we drink and the soil that produces our food without which we cannot survive. Forests play a key role in Find out stories prevalent in your region the ecological system as these are also the which are about the harmonious relationship primary producers on which all other living between human beings and nature. beings depend. Some estimates suggest that at least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is 20 per cent of its mammals are on the immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated threatened list. Many of these would now be species, diverse in form and function but categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge closely integrated in a system through of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed multiple network of interdependencies. duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and plants like madhuca insignis (a wild 2015-16 variety of mahua) and h u b b a r d i a Let us now understand the different heptaneuron,(a species of grass). In fact, no categories of existing plants and animal one can say how many species may have species. Based on the International Union already been lost. Today, we only talk of the for Conservation of Nature and Natural larger and more visible animals and plants Resources (IUCN), we can classify as that have become extinct but what about follows – smaller animals like insects and plants? Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, Do you know that among the larger rodents, etc. animals in India, 79 species of mammals, Endangered Species: These are species 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of which are in danger of extinction. The amphibians are threatened? Nearly 1,500 survival of such species is difficult if the plant species are considered endangered. negative factors that have led to a decline in Flowering plants and vertebrate animals their population continue to operate. The have recently become extinct at a rate examples of such species are black buck, estimated to be 50 to 100 times the crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion average expected natural rate. tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc. Vulnerable Species: These are species Vanishing Forests whose population has declined to levels from The dimensions of deforestation in India are where it is likely to move into the endangered staggering. The forest and tree cover in the category in the near future if the negative country is estimated at 78.92 million hectare, factors continue to operate. The examples of which is 24.01 per cent of the total such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, geographical area (dense forest 12.24 per Gangetic dolphin, etc. cent; open forest 8.99 per cent; and mangrove 0.14 per cent). According to the R a r e S p e c i e s : Species with small State of Forest Report (2013), the dense forest population may move into the endangered cover has increased by 10,098 sq km since or vulnerable category if the negative factors 1997. However, this apparent increase in the affecting them continue to operate. The forest cover is due to plantation by different examples of such species are the Himalayan agencies. brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc. Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural or geographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh. Extinct Species: These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples of such species are the Asiatic Fig. 2.1 cheetah, pink head duck. FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15 2015-16  Fig. 2.2: A few extinct, rare and endangered species Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go? depleted our forests and wildlife. The greatest damage inflicted on Indian forests was during The world’s fastest land mammal, the the colonial period due to the expansion of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific specialised member of the cat family and forestry and mining activities. Even after can move at the speed of 112 km./hr. The Independence, agricultural expansion cheetah is often mistaken for a leopard. Its continues to be one of the major causes of distinguishing marks are the long teardrop- depletion of forest resources. Between 1951 and shaped lines on each side of the nose from 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, the corner of its eyes to its mouth. Prior to over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was converted the 20th century, cheetahs were widely into agricultural land all over India. Substantial distributed throughout Africa and Asia. parts of the tribal belts, especially in the north- Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct eastern and central India, have been deforested due to a decline of available habitat and or degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type prey. The species was declared extinct in of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. India long back in 1952. Are colonial forest policies What are the negative factors that cause such to be blamed? fearful depletion of the flora and fauna? Some of our environmental activists say that If you look around, you will be able to find the promotion of a few favoured species, in out how we have transformed nature into a many parts of India, has been carried resource obtaining directly and indirectly from through the ironically-termed “enrichment the forests and wildlife – wood, barks, leaves, plantation”, in which a single commercially rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder, valuable species was extensively planted manure, etc. So it is we ourselves who have and other species eliminated. For instance, 16 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16  teak monoculture has damaged the natural the fact remains that a substantial part of the forest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinus fuel-fodder demand is met by lopping rather roxburghii) plantations in the Himalayas than by felling entire trees. The forest have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius ecosystems are repositories of some of the spp.) and Rhododendron forests. country’s most valuable forest products, minerals and other resources that meet the demands of the rapidly expanding industrial- Large-scale development projects have also urban economy. These protected areas, thus contributed significantly to the loss of forests. mean different things to different people, and Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest was therein lies the fertile ground for conflicts. cleared for river valley projects. Clearing of forests is still continuing with projects like the The Himalayan Yew in trouble Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh, The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a which would inundate 40,000 hectares of medicinal plant found in various parts of forest. Mining is another important factor Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh. behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger Reserve A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and ongoing dolomite mining. It has disturbed the roots of this tree, and it has been successfully natural habitat of many species and blocked used to treat some cancers – the drug is now the migration route of several others, including the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the the great Indian elephant. world. The species is under great threat due Many foresters and environmentalists hold to over-exploitation. In the last one decade, the view that the greatest degrading factors thousands of yew trees have dried up in behind the depletion of forest resources are various parts of Himachal Pradesh and grazing and fuel-wood collection. Though, there Arunachal Pradesh. may be some substance in their argument, yet, Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a nursery at Mukhali near Silent Valley Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk Fig. 2.3 FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 17 2015-16  Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, men. In many societies, women bear the major over-exploitation, environmental pollution, responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water poisoning and forest fires are factors, which and other basic subsistence needs. As these have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity. resources are depleted, the drudgery of women Other important causes of environmental increases and sometimes they have to walk for destruction are unequal access, inequitable more than 10 km to collect these resources. consumption of resources and differential This causes serious health problems for women sharing of responsibility for environmental and negligence of home and children because well-being. Over-population in third world of the increased hours of work, which often has countries is often cited as the cause of serious social implications. The indirect impact environmental degradation. However, an of degradation such as severe drought or average American consumes 40 times more deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the resources than an average Somalian. Similarly, poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a the richest five per cent of Indian society direct outcome of environmental destruction. probably cause more ecological damage Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the because of the amount they consume than the quality of life and environment in the poorest 25 per cent. The former shares subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound minimum responsibilities for environmental forest and wildlife conservation strategies. well-being. The question is: who is consuming what, from where and how much? Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India Conservation in the background of rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry has Do you know that over half of India’s become essential. But why do we need to natural forests are gone, one-third of its conserve our forests and wildlife? Conservation wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its preserves the ecological diversity and our life surface water bodies polluted, 40 per cent support systems – water, air and soil. It also of its mangroves wiped out, and with preserves the genetic diversity of plants and continued hunting and trade of wild animals for better growth of species and animals and commercially valuable breeding. For example, in agriculture, we are plants, thousands of plant and animal still dependent on traditional crop varieties. species are heading towards extinction? Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity. In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection Have you noticed any activity which leads programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) to the loss of biodiversity around you? Write Act was implemented in 1972, with various a note on it and suggest some measures to provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India prevent it. list of protected species was also published. The thrust of the programme was towards protecting the remaining population of certain The destruction of forests and wildlife is not endangered species by banning hunting, just a biological issue. The biological loss is giving legal protection to their habitats, and strongly correlated with the loss of cultural restricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently, diversity. Such losses have increasingly central and many state governments marginalised and impoverished many established national parks and wildlife indigenous and other forest-dependent sanctuaries about which you have already communities, who directly depend on various studied. The central government also components of the forest and wildlife for food, announced several projects for protecting drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. specific animals, which were gravely Within the poor, women are affected more than threatened, including the tiger, the one- 18 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16  Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or dropped to 3,600. There were 39 tiger hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water reserves in India covering an area of crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, 32137.14 sq km* Tiger conservation has the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, the been viewed not only as an effort to save Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the an endangered species, but with equal great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow importance as a means of preserving leopard, etc. have been given full or partial biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett legal protection against hunting and trade National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans throughout India. National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh Project Tiger National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger realised that the tiger population had reserves of India. dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated 55,000 at the turn of the century. The major threats to tiger population are numerous, The conservation projects are now focusing such as poaching for trade, shrinking on biodiversity rather than on a few of its habitat, depletion of prey base species, components. There is now a more intensive growing human population, etc. The trade search for different conservation measures. of tiger skins and the use of their bones in Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find traditional medicines, especially in the a place in conservation planning. In the Asian countries left the tiger population on notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and the verge of extinction. Since India and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to of the surviving tiger population in the the list of protected species. In 1991, for the world, these two nations became prime first time plants were also added to the list, targets for poaching and illegal trading. starting with six species. “Project Tiger”, one of the well- publicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed success as the tiger population went up to Collect more information on the wildlife 4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in sanctuaries and national parks of India and 1993, the population of the tiger had cite their locations on the map of India. Source : *Natinal Tiger Coservation Authority, Ministry of Environment Forest, Govternment of India, 2009-10 FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 19 2015-16  Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems? Types and Distribution of Forest and (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other Wildlife Resources forests and wastelands belonging to Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and both government and private individuals wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to and communities. manage, control and regulate them. In India, Reserved and protected forests are also much of its forest and wildlife resources are referred to as permanent forest estates either owned or managed by the government maintained for the purpose of producing through the Forest Department or other timber and other forest produce, and for government departments. These are classified protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the under the following categories. largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area. (i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, total forest land has been declared Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West reserved forests. Reserved forests are Bengal, and Maharashtra have large regarded as the most valuable as far as the percentages of reserved forests of its total forest conservation of forest and wildlife resources area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, are concerned. Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have (ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the a bulk of it under protected forests. All North- total forest area is protected forest, as declared eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very by the Forest Department. This forest land are high percentage of their forests as unclassed protected from any further depletion. forests managed by local communities. 20 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 Community and Conservation and treated as a part of temple devotees. In Conservation strategies are not new in our and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, country. We often ignore that in India, forests herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and peacocks can be seen as an integral part of are also home to some of the traditional communities. In some areas of India, local the community and nobody harms them. communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own Write a short essay on any practices which long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, you may have observed and practised in Rajasthan, villagers have fought against your everyday lives that conserve and protect mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In the environment around you. many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government The famous Chipko movement in the involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in Himalayas has not only successfully resisted the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared deforestation in several areas but has also shown 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev that community afforestation with indigenous Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of species can be enormously successful. rules and regulations which do not allow Attempts to revive the traditional conservation hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against methods or developing new methods of any outside encroachments. ecological farming are now widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown and rare species that adequate levels of diversified crop Nature worship is an age old tribal belief production without the use of synthetic based on the premise that all creations of chemicals are possible and economically viable. nature have to be protected. Such beliefs In India joint forest management (JFM) have preserved several virgin forests in programme furnishes a good example for pristine form called Sacred Groves (the involving local communities in the forests of God and Goddesses). These management and restoration of degraded patches of forest or parts of large forests have forests. The programme has been in formal been left untouched by the local people and existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha any interference with them is banned. passed the first resolution for joint forest Certain societies revere a particular tree management. JFM depends on the formation which they have preserved from time of local (village) institutions that undertake immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of protection activities mostly on degraded forest Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia land managed by the forest department. In latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus return, the members of these communities are cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus forest produces and share in the timber indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees harvested by ‘successful protection’. during weddings. To many of us, peepal and The clear lesson from the dynamics of both banyan trees are considered sacred. environmental destruction and reconstruction Indian society comprises several in India is that local communities everywhere cultures, each with its own set of traditional have to be involved in some kind of natural methods of conserving nature and its resource management. But there is still a long creations. Sacred qualities are often way to go before local communities are at the ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only and animals which are closely protected. You those economic or developmental activities, will find troops of macaques and langurs that are people centric, environment-friendly around many temples. They are fed daily and economically rewarding. FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 21 2015-16  “The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen who destroy it”. Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.) EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES E XERCISES 1. Multiple choice questions. (i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of flora and fauna? (a) Agricultural expansion. (b) Large scale developmental projects. (c) Grazing and fuel wood collection. (d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation. (ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve community participation? (a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement (b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries 2. Match the following animals with their category of existence. Animals/Plants Category of existence Black buck Extinct Asiatic elephant Rare Andaman wild pig Endangered Himalayan brown bear Vulnerable Pink head duck Endemic 3. Match the following. Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities Protected forests forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources Unclassed forests forest lands are protected from any further depletion 4. Answer the following questions in about 30 words. (i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives? (ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain. 5. Answer the following questions in about 120 words. (i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife in India? (ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife. 22 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16 You already know that three-fourth of the Water: Some facts and figures earth’s surface is covered with water, but only 96.5 per cent of the total volume of world’s a small proportion of it accounts for freshwater water is estimated to exist as oceans and that can be put to use. This freshwater is mainly only 2.5 per cent as freshwater. Nearly obtained from surface run off and ground water 70 per cent of this freshwater occurs as that is continually being renewed and ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, recharged through the hydrological cycle. All Greenland and the mountainous regions water moves within the hydrological cycle of the world, while a little less than 30 ensuring that water is a renewable resource. per cent is stored as groundwater in the You might wonder that if three-fourth of world’s aquifers. the world is covered with water and water is a India receives nearly 4 per cent of the renewable resource, then how is it that global precipitation and ranks 133 in the countries and regions around the globe suffer world in terms of water availability per from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that person per annum. by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in The total renewable water resources of India absolute water scarcity? are estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum. 2015-16  By 2025, it is predicted that large parts of associate it with regions having low rainfall India will join countries or regions having or those that are drought prone. We absolute water scarcity. instantaneously visualise the deserts of Source: The UN World Water Development Rajasthan and women balancing many Report, 2003 ‘matkas’ (earthen pots) used for collecting and storing water and travelling long distances to get water. True, the availability of water WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER resources varies over space and time, mainly CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT due to the variations in seasonal and annual Given the abundance and renewability of precipitation, but water scarcity in most cases water, it is difficult to imagine that we may is caused by over- exploitation, excessive use suffer from water scarcity. The moment we and unequal access to water among different speak of water shortages, we immediately social groups. Water, Water Everywher e, Not a Drop to Drink : After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinking water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain, meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and disruted traffic. A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in the snow in a devastated village. Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity 24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16  requirements but have further aggravated the According to Falkenmark, a Swedish expert, problem. If you look into the housing water stress occurs when water availability societies or colonies in the cities, you would is between 1,000 and 1,600 cubic metre per find that most of these have their own person per year. groundwater pumping devices to meet their water needs. Not surprisingly, we find that fragile water resources are being over - Where is then water scarcity likely to exploited and have caused their depletion in occur? As you have read in the hydrological several of these cities. cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly So far we have focused on the quantitative from precipitation, surface run off and aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider groundwater. another situation where water is sufficiently Is it possible that an area or region may available to meet the needs of the people, have ample water resources but is still facing but, the area still suffers from water scarcity. water scarcity? Many of our cities are such This scarcity may be due to bad quality of examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an water. Lately, there has been a growing outcome of large and growing population and concern that even if there is ample water to consequent greater demands for water, and meet the needs of the people, much of it may unequal access to it. A large population means be polluted by domestic and industrial more water not only for domestic use but also wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers to produce more food. Hence, to facilitate used in agriculture, thus, making it higher food-grain production, water resources hazardous for human use. are being over-exploited to expand irrigated areas and dry-season agriculture. You may India’s rivers, especially the smaller ones, have seen in many television advertisements have all turned into toxic streams. And even that most farmers have their own wells and the big ones like the Ganga and Yamuna tube-wells in their farms for irrigation to increase their produce. But have you ever are far from being pure. The assault on India’s rivers – from population growth, wondered what this could result in? That it agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and may lead to falling groundwater levels, industrialisation – is enormous and growing adversely affecting water availability and food by the day….. This entire life stands security of the people. Post-independent India witnessed threatened. intensive industrialisation and urbanisation, Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report, CSE, 1999. creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large industrial houses are as commonplace You may have already realised that the as the industrial units of many MNCs need of the hour is to conserve and manage (Multinational Corporations). The ever- our water resources, to safeguard ourselves increasing number of industries has made from health hazards, to ensure food security, matters worse by exerting pressure on continuation of our livelihoods and existing freshwater resources. Industries, productive activities and also to prevent apart from being heavy users of water, also degradation of our natural ecosystems. Over require power to run them. Much of this exploitation and mismanagement of water energy comes from hydroelectric power. resources will impoverish this resource and Today, in India hydroeclectric power cause ecological crisis that may have contributes approximately 22 per cent of the profound impact on our lives. total electricity produced. Moreover, multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have From your everyday experiences, write a short not only added to water and energy proposal on how you can conserve water. WATER RESOURCES 25 2015-16 MU L T I -P U R P O S E R I V E R P R O J E C T S A N D What are dams and how do they help us INTEGRATED W ATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT in conserving and managing water? Dams were traditionally built to impound rivers and But, how do we conserve and manage water? rainwater that could be used later to irrigate Archaeological and historical records show that agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not from ancient times we have been constructing just for irrigation but for electricity generation, sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams water supply for domestic and industrial built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, uses, flood control, recreation, inland embankments and canals for irrigation. Not navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are surprisingly, we have continued this tradition now referred to as multi-purpose projects in modern India by building dams in most of where the many uses of the impounded water our river basins. are integrated with one another. For example, in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India Nangal project water is being used both for In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura hydel power production and irrigation. near Allahabad had sophisticated water Similarly, the Hirakud project in the harvesting system channelling the flood Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water of the river Ganga. water with flood control. During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were A dam is a barrier across flowing water that extensively built. obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. have also been found in Kalinga, “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the (Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra structure. Most dams have a section called a Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur spillway or weir over which or through which (Maharashtra), etc. it is intended that water will flow either In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the intermittently or continuously. Dams are largest artificial lakes of its time was built. classified according to structure, intended In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, purpose or height. Based on structure and Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for the materials used, dams are classified as supplying water to Siri Fort area. timber dams, embankment dams or masonry Source: Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997. dams, with several subtypes. According to the height, dams can be categorised as large dams and major dams or alternatively as low dams, medium height dams and high dams. Multi-purpose projects, launched after Independence with their integrated water resources management approach, were thought of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to development and progress, overcoming the handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’; the reason being that it would integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialisation and Fig. 3.2: Hirakud Dam growth of the urban economy. 26 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16  Find out more about any one traditional Narmada Bachao Andolan or S a v e method of building dams and irrigation works. Narmada Movement is a Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) that mobilised tribal people, farmers, We have sown the crops in Asar environmentalists and human rights We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam Floods have swollen the Damodar being built across the Narmada river in Gujarat. It originally focused on the The sailing boats cannot sail environmental issues related to trees that Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet would be submerged under the dam Reduce the floods a little water. Recently it has re-focused the Bhadu will come a year later aim to enable poor citizens, especially the oustees (displaced people) to get Let the boats sail on your surface full rehabilitation facilities from (This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar valley the government. region narrates the troubles faced by people owing to the flooding of Damodar river known People felt that their suffering would not as the river of sorrow.) be in vain… accepted the trauma of displacement believing in the promise of irrigated fields and plentiful harvests. So, often the survivors of Rihand told us that they In recent years, multi-purpose projects and accepted their sufferings as sacrifice for the large dams have come under great scrutiny sake of their nation. But now, after thirty bitter and opposition for a variety of reasons. years of being adrift, their livelihood having Regulating and damming of rivers affect their even being more precarious, they keep natural flow causing poor sediment flow and asking: “Are we the only ones chosen to excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the make sacrifices for the nation?” reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life. Dams Source: S. Sharma, quoted in In the Belly of the River. Tribal conflicts over development in Narmada also fragment rivers making it difficult for valley, A. Baviskar, 1995. aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning. The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing Irrigation has also changed the cropping vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition pattern of many regions with farmers shifting over a period of time. to water intensive and commercial crops. This Multi-purpose projects and large dams has great ecological consequences like have also been the cause of many new social salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it has movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ transformed the social landscape i.e. and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc. Resistance increasing the social gap between the richer to these projects has primarily been due to the landowners and the landless poor. As we can large-scale displacement of local communities. see, the dams did create conflicts between Local people often had to give up their land, people wanting different uses and benefits from livelihood and their meagre access and control the same water resources. In Gujarat, the over resources for the greater good of the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated and nation. So, if the local people are not benefiting almost caused a riot over the higher priority from such projects then who is benefited? given to water supply in urban areas, Perhaps, the landowners and large farmers, particularly during droughts. Inter-state water industrialists and few urban centres. Take the disputes are also becoming common with case of the landless in a village – does he really regard to sharing the costs and benefits of the gain from such a project? multi-purpose project. WATER RESOURCES 27 2015-16  India: Major Rivers and Dams 28 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II 2015-16  triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the dispute is due to the objections raised by time of excessive rainfall. You may have seen Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh or read how the release of water from dams governments? It is regarding the diversion during heavy rains aggravated the flood of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra situation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006. government for a multipurpose project. This The floods have not only devastated life and would reduce downstream flow in their property but also caused extensive soil erosion. states with adverse consequences for Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains agriculture and industry. were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of land degradation. It was also observed that the multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused water- Make a list of inter-state water disputes. borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from excessive use of water. Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for RAINWATER HARVESTING which they were built. Ironically, the dams that Many thought that given the disadvantages were constructed to control floods have and rising resistance against the multi- Collect information about flood prone areas of the country WATER RESOURCES 29 2015-16 purpose projects, water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio- economically and environmentally. In ancient India, along with the sophisticated hydraulic structures, there existed an extraordinary tradition of water-harvesting system. People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types and developed wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood water in keeping with the local ecological conditions and their water needs. In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture. ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan. In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation (a) Recharge through Hand Pump channels to irrigate their fields. In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.