Overview: Module 2 PDF

**\ Overview: Module 2** English learners are generally grouped into the following six levels: - Beginner - Elementary - Pre-intermediate - Intermediate - Upper intermediate - Advanced However, in some schools/institutions you may find different classifications. The Common Europe...

**\ Overview: Module 2** English learners are generally grouped into the following six levels: - Beginner - Elementary - Pre-intermediate - Intermediate - Upper intermediate - Advanced However, in some schools/institutions you may find different classifications. The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is widely accepted in European countries, as well as increasingly on an international scale, and aims to standardise language learning, teaching and assessment. There are three general categories (A-Basic User, B-Independent User, C-Proficient User) which are further broken down into two levels. - **Basic User** A1 -- Breakthrough *or* Beginner\ A2 -- Waystage *or *Elementary - **Independent User** B1 -- Threshold *or* Intermediate\ B2 -- Vantage *or* Upper Intermediate - **Proficient User** C1 -- Effective Operational Proficiency *or* Advanced C2 -- Mastery *or* Proficiency Another method commonly used is grouping students into classes named after the exams they are preparing for, particularly in the case of the Cambridge ESOL examinations. These are: - KET -- Key English Test - PET -- Preliminary English Test - FCE -- First Certificate in English - CAE -- Certificate in Advanced English - CPE -- Certificate of Proficiency in English There are additionally two Cambridge exams for young learners (ESOL YLE) known as Starters, Movers and Flyers. **More about the CEFR** The CEFR is very important, so it's crucial that we explore this further. You may teach in a school where their approach and syllabus is fully built on the CEFR classifications and terminology; thus, it's paramount that you have a solid grasp of it. It's not difficult. **Background** Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a student's proficiency/competency in language as compared to mainstream English classes in, for example, the USA or the UK. - As you'll already know, measuring a student's proficiency in language is not an exact science. - No universal system of rating exists. - The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR or CEF) is, perhaps, our best guide. There are other guides. - Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular levels. Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which level the materials are intended for and schools will have similar class labelling to indicate what level the students are studying. So, there's no need to worry! **1. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; sometimes called the CEF): What is it?** The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It has 6 levels in ascending order from A1 to C2. The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a language-neutral format. Because it is language-neutral, it can actually be used for any language in the world. It is a useful reference document for school directors, syllabus designers, teachers, teacher trainers and proficient learners. Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as their scale of levels, though some give each level their own name. The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each of those bands divided into two, giving us six main levels. It also describes (provides descriptors) which represent what a student should be able to do at each level. You may have heard of other student level terminology in EFL, i.e. Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced. Very loosely, you can see the CEFR levels as similar to Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced -- though the CEFR levels are more precise than these terms (and calls them Basic, Independent, and Proficient). **2. The CEFR's approach: Communicative language competence** The CEFR's approach is based on the notion of communicative language competence-- the increasing ability to communicate and operate effectively in the target language It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR's view of communicative language competence. Communicative language competence has **a number of component parts**: it includes linguistic, socio-linguistic and pragmatic competences. Each of these competences is made up of knowledge, aptitudes and skills. [Linguistic competence] Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to: - lexis (generally, words and phrases) - phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds) - syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language) - and other features of language systems, considered independently of the sociolinguistic impact of variations in use and of the pragmatic functions of the utterances produced. It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the range and precision of lexical knowledge) but also involves cognitive organisation and the way this knowledge is stored in memory (for example, the question of how a lexical item fits into the networks of associations the speaker has available) and the accessibility (for example, how an item can be recalled, activated and its availability for use). [Socio-linguistic competence] Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in using language functionally in a social context. Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social norms and customs which affect to an important degree all linguistic communication between representatives of different cultures, even if the participants are frequently unaware of them. These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings and politeness, the way in which relations between generations, sexes, people of different social status, social groupings are expressed through special language markers, linguistically codified rituals, differences in register, dialect and accent, through vocal rhythms, for example. Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural parameters and the way in which they influence language use. [Pragmatic competence] Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources (carrying out language functions, speech acts) using scenarios or predetermined scripts of interactional exchanges. It also involves mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the recognition of text types and genres, using irony or parody. Even more than in the case of this factor than for linguistic competence, the development of pragmatic skills is strongly influenced by interactive experience and by the cultural environment. Let's have a look at these **CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a Global Level** You will find the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It's not difficult. It's an excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on track when you start on your TEFL journey. **CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors - Global Level** **Level** **Level Descriptors** ---------------------- ----------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Proficient User** **C2** Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the most complex situations. **C1** Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices. **Independent User** **B2** Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options. **B1** Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. **Basic User** **A2** Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need. **A1** Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. We can also use the '+' to indicate the top half of a level. For example, 'B1+' means the top half of the B1 range. You will find this convention followed in various course books. **3. Why do we need the CEFR?** Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts there can be a lot of variety in what is meant by terms like 'beginner', 'intermediate' or 'advanced'. This variability increases significantly across different languages, in different countries, with different age ranges of learners, etc. The CEFR makes it easier for all of us to talk about language levels reliably and with shared understanding. **4. What is it used for?** The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes: - Developing syllabuses - Creating texts/exams - Marking exams - Evaluating language learning needs - Designing courses - Developing learning materials - Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment - Teacher training programmes **5. Is it just about levels?** The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching because its impact goes beyond merely describing learner levels. It has underpinned a particular approach to language learning as the one most commonly recommended or expected in language teaching today. This is the Communicative Approach we explored earlier. It not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills-based and take the form of **Can Do statements**, as in the examples below. These descriptions of ability focus on communicative purpose and make for a very practical approach, **which looks at what people can do -- rather than on specific linguistic knowledge.** The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all the various sub-skills and areas of competence: - the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening) - communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification) - types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing) - and more linguistic skills (e.g. vocabulary range, phonological control) It allows you link up skills in each of these areas with the student's overall level. **Examples of 'can do' statements from the CEFR** *Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need*. \[A2, Global Scale\] *Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.*\[C1, Listening\] *Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning. *\[C2, Reading\] *Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of immediate relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to be important.*\[B1, Written interaction\] *Can use stock phrases (e.g. "That's a difficult question to answer") to gain time and keep the turn whilst formulating what to say. *\[B2, Turn taking\] You can view a list of Can Do statements at [[https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000168045b15e]](https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000168045b15e) **6. What's in it for you? How can the CEFR be useful for teachers?** [Understanding language levels better] The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for describing language levels. National, local and school policies are increasingly being described in CEFR levels -- and so it's important to understand what they mean. [Seeing more clearly what learners need to work on] The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next level. You will find it particularly useful in showing how different component skills are described at each level. You have an idea of what a B2 student is like, but what should they be able to do in terms of listening to lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken fluency? The CEFR helps you see what is needed for different aspects of learning English. [Curriculum plan] If a teacher responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class -- just her own or for the whole school -- it is very helpful to use the CEFR as a broad framework. Look carefully at the descriptors for the levels you need -- not just the Global Scale, but component scales as well where relevant. What do you want your students to achieve in each course on their path to the target level? This can be further elaborated by looking at the information coming from English Profile, which we'll come to in a moment. Of course, most teachers do not need to create their own curriculum. By choosing a course book that is aligned to the CEFR, you have a syllabus created by experts -- which you may then choose to adapt for your own circumstances. **7. Should you introduce your students to the CEFR?** Yes, it's very useful for students to understand how mastery of a language builds up from beginner to mastery. Of course, this needs to be suitable for their level and age, and it is probably adults and teenagers that will find it useful. Scales -- adapted to their language level -- are really useful for self-assessment, which can be very helpful in developing language skills. **8. English Profile** The English Profile Programme involves major research projects that are all working towards a reliable, detailed description of the actual learner English that is typical of each CEFR level. Initially, the focus has been on vocabulary and grammar, and the English Vocabulary Profile is now complete for all six levels, A1-C2. A separate research team is developing a similar resource, the English Grammar Profile, which describes the gradual mastery of grammar across the six CEFR levels. Cambridge University Press has given teachers around the world access to their research into vocabulary learning across the CEFR. Go to the English Profile website -- [[www.englishprofile.org]](http://www.englishprofile.org/) and click on Free Registration English Vocabulary Profile. This will allow you to find out which words and phrases -- and individual meanings of each word -- are typically mastered by learners at each CEFR level. This is a really valuable tool to make decisions about what to teach students as they progress. Cambridge University Press authors and editors make extensive use of this research in developing their course materials. Use it well! ***In this module we're going to look at an overview of the grammar taught at each level as well as going over some key grammatical terms and what they actually mean, and see how to teach the different tenses.*** **Unit 1: Grammar at every level** Needless to say, your teaching will change according to the level of the group or individual, particularly in terms of grammar. Have a look at the following table to get an idea at what is taught when. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Beginner** Subject pronouns (I, you, he/she...)\ Object pronouns (me, you, him/her...)\ Verb 'be' -- present tense (I **am**, you **are**...)\ This, that, these, those\ Basic prepositions (in, at, to...)\ Articles (a, an, the)\ Singular/plural nouns\ Possessive adjectives (my, your, his/hers...)\ Possessive 's'\ Likes and dislikes ------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Elementary** Verb 'be' -- present tense questions and negatives\ Present simple (I **walk**, she **walks**...)\ Present continuous (I'**mwalking**, she'**swalking**...)\ Adverbs of frequency (sometimes, often, never...)\ Possessive pronouns (mine, yours...)\ Past simple, regular and irregular (play\> play**ed**, go\>**went**)\ Like + -ing (I like swimm**ing**)\ Want, like and would like\ Telling the time **Pre-Intermediate** Past simple, regular and irregular verbs\ Past continuous (she **was going**, they **were walking**...)\ So, because, but, although\ Future forms: 'going to'/present continuous for future arrangements/'will/won't'\ Present perfect + ever, never, for and since\ Comparatives (more/less...than, as....as)\ Superlatives (the most/least....)\ Modals of obligation (have to, don't have to, must, mustn't...)\ 'Used to'\ 'so/neither' + auxiliaries (so do I, neither has he...) **Intermediate** Present perfect vs continuous\ Past simple vs past continuous vs past perfect\ Future forms: 'going to' vs present continuous vs 'will/shall'\ Usually vs used to\ Reported speech ("I'm going to the park" \> **he said he was going to the park**)\ Passives (the church **was painted by** Michelangelo)\ Relative clauses (the girl **who** is sat over there...)\ Modals of obligation and deduction (must, may, might, can't...)\ Can, could, be able to (ability)\ First conditional and future time clauses (**If** I **pass** the exam, I'**llcelebrate**)\ Second conditional ((**If** I **was** famous I'**dgive** money to charity)) **Upper Intermediate** The\...the... + comparatives (**themore** you learn **themore** you know...)\ Using adjectives as nouns (rich people are privileged \> **the rich** are privileged)\ Adjective order\ Narrative tenses\ Adverbs and adverbial phrases\ Passive structures (it is said that..., he is believed to...)\ Future perfect and continuous (the ice caps **will have melted**, we **will be using** solar powered cars)\ Reporting verbs (recommend, threaten, advise...)\ Third conditional (**if** I **had known**, I **would have come**)\ Past modals, 'would rather' and 'had better'\ Gerunds and infinitives\ Used to, be used to, get used to\ Structures after wish Quantifiers **Advanced** Inversion for emphasis (little **did he** know that the dog had escaped)\ Linkers (although, nonetheless, whilst...)\ Mixed conditionals (**If** her eyesight **was** better she **would have seen** the squirrel)\ Cleft sentences (**the reason why I've come** is..., **the thing that annoys me most** is...)\ Compound nouns\ 'So' and 'such'\ Gerunds and infinitives\ Phrasal verbs (go **up**, go **in**, go **out**, go **on**, go **for**...)\ Unreal uses of past tenses (it's time we **left**, suppose we **opened** our own shop...)\ Uses of the verb 'get'\ Participle phrases (the horse, **trotting up to the fence**, hopes you have a carrot)\ Passive and active voice -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Although this may look a bit overwhelming, you will never be left without resources to work from and many teacher's books even give a step-by-step guide of how to teach all the grammar listed above. Today we're going to look together at an example from each level so that you have an idea of how to teach appropriately at every stage. **Beginner Level** When teaching absolute beginners it is crucial to 'grade' your language as much as possible because even some of the simplest sentences may confuse your students. At this level you really need to be animated and reduce the complexity of anything you say. If, for example, you start your lesson with, "Okay guys, today we're going to cover subject pronouns" you will probably be greeted by a sea of blank stares. Instead, it is essential to use visuals, for example, "Look (point to eyes) at the board (point to board)" before clearly writing the title 'subject pronouns'. **This is a technique called 'modelling' and is really necessary at this level.** Basically, it means demonstrating exactly what you're talking about by pointing and using visuals. In case you're unsure, subject pronouns are used to replace the noun which is the subject of the sentence. If we take the sentence "Mary is American", we can replace the noun (Mary) with 'she', a subject pronoun. The subject pronouns in English are: - **I** -- 1st person singular - **you** -- 2nd person singular - **he/she/it** -- 3rd person singular - **we** -- 1st person plural - **you** -- 2nd person plural - **they** -- 3rd person plural Rather than simply writing this list on the board and getting your students to copy it, you first need to demonstrate. Look at the example below of how to present a lesson on subject pronouns... - "**I** (point to yourself) am a teacher". Write the word 'I' on the board, then repeat the sentence, again pointing at yourself as you emphasis the word 'I'. - "**you** (point to an individual student) have a red bag (e.g.)". Write 'you' on the board underneath 'I' and repeat. - Say both sentences together, always demonstrating as you speak, "I am a teacher. You have a red bag" - "**he** (point to a male student) is tall (indicate height with your hand)". - Continue with this pattern until you have demonstrated all the subject pronouns. - Get the students to repeat after you and drill pronunciation. - At this point there are a variety of activities you could do from matching activities to sentence completion but remember not to ignore the visual aspect: any handout should include clear pictures that the students can relate the pronouns to. Top of Form Match the following pronouns to the pictures. they  you  she  you **They** **we** **you (singular)** **she** **he** **I** **you (plural)** Bottom of Form **More about teaching absolute beginners** You'll notice that we have introduced the word 'absolute'. This is to differentiate 'true' beginners (absolute beginners) from 'false' beginners, which we'll come to in a moment. An absolute beginner has no knowledge of English. **Here is some further sound and practical advice for teaching absolute beginners:** **1. Keep it simple** Work hard at grading your language to these groups. Keep it simple and try not to use complex structures or complex vocabulary, e.g. *Most definitely, if I were you....* You'll need to speak slower but not too slow and deliberate such that it sounds like you are talking to a baby, otherwise the learners may feel patronised. But don't miss out simple but important words and structures. Don't say *Ah, you to go to party tonight*. Learners need to hear certain structures even if you haven't reached that learning point with them. Otherwise, they may think that's how English really is spoken. And, if you are teaching adults at these levels, it's important to utilise or create material that is relevant to an adult. Avoid using books or materials that are too childish. **2. Use the right approach** You'll need to be ready to use a [wider variety of materials and shorter activities] that involve them in communication -- more drawing on the board, more pictures and diagrams, more role plays, more ways for getting the message across. Also, make [good use of gestures and mime] to help get the message across. **3. Encourage interaction** Use pair or group activities that encourage interaction by providing learners with situations in which they must [negotiate ]language with partners or group members to complete a task. **4. Make a personal connection** Ensure you know the students' names. If you have any difficulty with this, draw up a seating plan with their names on it. When you're away from your desk, you can use some tricks of the trade: 1. You: *Well done, Maria* (whose name you have remembered). *Who will I ask now? You tell me, Maria. You can point to the person.*\ Maria: *Juan *(pointing to Juan)\ You: *Thank you, Maria. Juan* (whose name you had forgotten), *what is the dog's name?* 2. You: *The next student I will ask is a boy, he has a red shirt and he sits near the window. Who is it?\ *They: *Alejandro!(pointing to him)\ *You: *That's right. Well done! Alejandro *(whose name you had forgotten), *what is the dog's name?* **5. Minimise your students' cognitive burden** *Cognitive*, as you will know, is the fancy word for the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. When teaching these groups of beginner students, it's best not to write a lot of information on the board and have students copy it down while you continue to explain concepts. We can easily forget these students cannot multi-task with their current language proficiency level and it is important to break down tasks into smaller components. Do one thing at a time. **6. Can they see and hear?** Make sure students can see and hear you. Some students may never have had their eyesight or hearing checked. A student who appears resistant to learning may simply have needs that have not been expressed. **7. Learn a bit of their language** Make an effort to learn some words or phrases in the students' L1. They will appreciate your effort to learn their language, and they will see you more as a partner in the learning process rather than someone who has all the answers. The students will enjoy helping you learn a few new words each day; by learning bits of a totally new language you will have more empathy for your students' struggles to learn English. **8. Review constantly** Remember that with beginners you are your students' textbook and study guide as well as their teacher. Provide review sessions at the beginning of every class so students will practise what they've learned and acquire the language. **9. Be animated** Don't be afraid to make sound effects, play music, do mimes and take walks around the school neighbourhood to reinforce concepts. Sometimes the best learning doesn't even take place in the classroom, and it doesn't have to be serious to be effective. **We mentioned 'false' beginners above. **Let's explore what these are. **False beginners** It's important that we make you aware of the phenomenon of *false beginners.* By the time you are in action, you will have picked up this Very Important Point from this course -- **beware of false beginners.** Note that at the [beginner ]level, CEFR A1 Level, a distinction is often made between teaching false beginners and absolute beginners. False beginners are those students who have perhaps had a little English learning, or who have picked up English more informally and inconsistently, perhaps through travelling or from bi-lingual parents/carers. False beginners may give the appearance of knowing some English, which initially makes them easier to teach. However, their superficial knowledge can present some teaching challenges, as these learners [may have developed early bad errors/habits.] Their classroom motivation may also be affected, as they may think that they already know the material just because they recognise it. Look out for false beginners. Note that absolute beginners have a high intrinsic motivation from day 1, and will catch up to the false beginner learner very quickly. **Elementary Level** At elementary level your students should already be able to grasp the absolute basics but don't get carried away thinking you can present a lesson to them in the same way you would to an English native speaker! Your students should hopefully be familiar with the subject pronouns and the verb 'be' in positive sentences (I **am**, you **are**, he/she/it **is**...) but it's always useful to do a quick recap. At this stage you can also introduce whatever vocabulary theme you are linking the lesson to e.g. nationalities (I am English, you are Italian...) or feelings perhaps (she is happy, they are tired...). - Write \"**+**\" on the board and a variety of sentences with the verb \'be\' using all the subject pronouns. - Next to this list write \" **-** \" symbol and try to elicit from the class the negative equivalent of each sentence, e.g: ---------------------- ------------------------- +\ -\ I **am** English\ I **am** not English\ You **are** Italian\ You **are** not Italian He **is** Scottish\ She **is** French ---------------------- ------------------------- - At this stage you can show the negative contractions, highlighting the fact that with every subject pronoun except 'I' there are two possibilities (I'm not... compared to you're not/you aren't... etc.). Get the class to practice writing a variety of sentences about themselves and other students to then read aloud. Drill pronunciation. - You can then introduce the question statements using a listening task where the students must complete the gaps with the correct form of the verb be for example: Teacher gives this instruction:** \"Listen and complete the dialogue\"** **Man**: \_\_\_\_ you Scottish?\ **Woman**: No, I'm Irish! Where \_\_\_ you from?\ **Man**: I'm from the USA.\ **Woman**: \_\_\_ he from the USA too?\ **Man**: Yes, we \_\_\_ both from California. - Elicit correct answers on the board then write: - **+ **You **are** Scottish - **?Are** you Scottish? - Ask, 'What's the difference?' Highlight the inversion of subject and verb using arrow symbols - Again once the grammar point has been presented there are any number of different task-based activities you can give to the class to ensure they have understood and to practice. **Pre-intermediate Level** **At pre-intermediate level we often introduce modal verbs of permission and obligation.** Modal verbs are verbs such as can, must, may etc. which are always followed by another verb but they tell us the function of that main verb. For example, 'you *can* run' is very different in meaning from 'you *must* run'. Many pre-intermediate students will have heard a lot of these verbs before but may not be completely sure of their meaning. Especially because some of the modals of permission/obligation (must, may, can, should, have to) have negatives (must not, may not, don't have to etc.) which aren't exactly opposite in meaning. There are numerous resources online and in EFL books which cover this topic but an idea of how to present the lesson is shown below. - Write the title 'School Rules' on the board and try to elicit as many as possible from the students e.g. 'you must switch off mobile phones in class', 'you have to wear a school uniform' etc. - Go back through the rules and highlight all the modals of permission/obligation. If there are any missing you can try to elicit them by writing the first letter of each in hangman-style (e.g. m\_ \_ ) until all are on the board. - Write a list of definitions on the board or have a handout prepared and ask students to match the modals (positive and negative versions) up with each definition. Lets look at some modal verbs. Please note, as will all these question types, you need to drag all the answers into the correct zones. Top of Form Drag and drop the modal verbs. It is obligatory- **must/ have to** It is possible- **can/ may** It is advisable- **should** It is forbidden **may not/ cannot/ must not** It isn\'t necessary- **don\'t have to** It is inadvisable- **shouldn\'t** Bottom of Form - It's then important to highlight that whilst certain modals have the exact opposite meaning in the negative form (should/shouldn't) others change meaning in the negative (have to=obligation/don't have to=possible but not necessary NOT forbidden). - After this you can ask students to imagine their ideal school and write their own set of rules using a variety of the modals covered, bringing together ideas from each individual/group to make a full set which have a general consensus. **\ Intermediate Level** Relative clauses are used to give additional information about something without starting a new sentence. They combine sentences in a way that is natural and avoids repetition. Without relative clauses, speech and writing can sound heavy and strange, for example: Mark is talking to a girl. Do you know the girl? Here we have two very short sentences, repeating the word 'girl'. Instead we could join the two together using the relative pronoun 'who' Do you know the girl **who** Mark is talking to? **There are five different relative pronouns (who, which, whom, that and whose) and three relative adverbs (where, when, why) which can be used to link sentences together.** A typical exercise used to present relative clauses is to give students a number of sentences that they have to link together using an appropriate relative clause. At intermediate level the essential ones are who, which, that, where and when. Whom, whose and why can be taught at higher levels. Link the following sentences with an appropriate relative pronoun. Choose all that apply. Top of Form Link the following sentences with an appropriate relative pronoun/adjective. Choose all that apply. That's the girl. I invited her to the cinema. A. who B. which C. that D. where E. when Top of Form 1\. A dog is an animal. It is related to the wolf. A. who B. which C. that D. where E. when Top of Form 1\. That's the house. My grandparents used to live there. A. who B. which C. that D. where E. when In *defining* relative clauses, 'that' can be used as an informal substitute for 'who' or 'which'. Top of Form In which of these sentences can 'who' be replaced by 'that'? 1\. The boy who we met yesterday is very nice. 2\. The boy, who we met yesterday, is very nice. Check answer Bottom of Form Incorrect. The second sentence is non-defining because it is assumed that the listener knows which boy we are speaking about so doesn't have to specify. Notice the use of comma\'s in the second sentence. In this case the relative clause adds some extra information about the boy but it's not essential to our understanding of the sentence. **Advanced Level** As an example of advanced level content we're going to look at active and passive sentences. An active sentence is one which follows the usual formula of subject + verb + object/complement: - He built the stadium in 1998 A passive sentence, however, inverts this order, placing the object at the beginning. - The stadium was built (by him) in 1998 We use passive sentences to place emphasis on the object, rather than the subject of the sentence, or when the subject is unknown or unimportant. In passive sentences, we call the subject the 'agent' and stating the agent is optional, as in the above example. To form a passive sentence we always use the verb 'be' (in the same tense as the verb from the active sentence) + past participle. If we look at the previous example, the verb is 'built' which is the past simple form of the verb 'build'. Therefore, in the passive sentence, it is the verb 'be' which must change to the past simple form 'was' + the past participle which in this case is '*built'*. To recap how to form passive sentences with your class you could give them a list of active sentences and ask them to re-write them in the passive. Top of Form Look at the following active and passive sentences. Complete the passive sentence with the correct past participle. A. closed B. was closed C. is closed Top of Form 2\. Active: Somebody has stolen my wallet. Passive: My wallet \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. A. is been stolen B. was stolen C. has been stolen **Example Grammar Practice** Whilst most of your students should feel comfortable forming passive sentences in a controlled exercise, they may still make mistakes in their writing by using the passive form in an active sentence or vice versa. It can therefore be useful to find a text which uses a variety of active or passive sentences, erase all the verb forms and have students write the correct active or passive verb in the blank spaces. Look at the following example which you are free to use with your own lessons. **Student instruction \"Fill the gaps with the active or passive form of the verbs in brackets\"** **Reuters \'News Agency** Martin Webb\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(work) for the Reuters News Agency for ten years. He describes the company. \"Reuters is one of the world\'s biggest news agencies. It\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(supply) news and stock market price to media and financial institutions all over the world\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (start) by Paul Reuters in 1849 - with pigeons. Reuter\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(be) born in 1816 in Germany. During the 1840\'s he \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(employ) as a bank clerk in Berlin. German bankers \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(need) to know the price on the Paris stock exchange, but the French telegraph system only went as far as Belgium. From there the information\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(send) to Germany by train. The journey\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(take) nine hours. The same information\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ carry by Paul Reuter\'s pigeons in only two hours!\" \"Reuters \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(change) a lot since those days. Over the past fifty years, we \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(open) offices in many different countries and we \_\_\_\_\_\_\_still\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(expand). Now, news and stock market prices\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(send) all over the world within seconds.\" \*text taken from [[www.busyteacher.org]](http://www.busyteacher.org/) Again there are variety of resources available to teach the various grammar points but the important thing to remember is how to teach appropriately at each level! **\ Unit 1: Questions** Top of Form Which of the following is an example of something you would NOT teach at elementary level? A. verb B. present continuous C. like + ing D. relative clauses Top of Form Can you replace 'which' with 'that' in the following sentence? 'The flowers, which I love, are daffodils.' Y/N? Yes No Top of Form Choose the correct verb form to complete the passive sentence.Active: Charlotte thinks someone was following her.Passive: Charlotte thinks she\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. A. is following B. is being followed C. was being followed D. had been being followed Top of Form The two modal verbs 'have to' and 'don't have to' mean exactly the opposite. T/F? True False Top of Form False beginners are those students who have perhaps had a little English learning, or who have picked up English more informally and inconsistently. True False Top of Form An absolute beginner has no knowledge of English. True False Top of Form When teaching absolute beginner students, it's best to write a lot of information on the board and have students copy it down while you continue to explain concepts. True False **Unit 2: Key grammatical terms and their functions** Many novice EFL teachers are afraid of teaching grammar because, although they can intuitively sense if a sentence is correct or incorrect, they often don't know how to explain why because they themselves are unfamiliar with all the jargon. If you struggle recognising your nouns from your pronouns, your adjectives from your adverbs then you're not alone. But grasping these key concepts is essential to EFL teaching. Here we're going to focus on the nine parts of speech (adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, exclamations, nouns, prepositions, pronouns and verbs) and look at them in a bit more detail than the typical "a verb is a doing word" approach we all learned at school. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Part Of Speech** **Function** **Examples** **A Few Subcategories** -------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Adjective to describe a noun, a pronoun or part of a sentence tall intelligent comparative (taller) superlative (most intelligent)... Adverb to describe a verb, adjective or another adverb by giving more information about how, when something happens quickly finally sometimes yesterday frequency (sometimes), time (yesterday), manner (angrily), degree (completely), quantity (few), attitude markers (apparently)... Conjunctions to connect a clause, sentence or word but\ addition (and), condition (since), contrast (yet), purpose (so that), reason (because), result (therefore), time (before).. and\ so Determiners to clarify which noun is being referred to this\ articles (the), demonstrative adjectives (that), possessive adjectives (his), quantifiers (both)... my\ both Exclamations to express strong feeling (informal, spoken language) ouch\ doubt (erm), pain (ouch)... wow\ oh no Nouns to name things, people, places, concepts milk\ abstract (hope), countable (people), uncountable (sugar), proper (Liverpool), collective (army)... parents\ beauty Prepositions to link a noun/noun phrase/pronoun to another word or phrase at\ cause/effect (due to), contrast (unlike), dependent (wait for), movement (towards), place (under), time (during)... until\ throughout Pronouns to replace/refer to a noun or noun phrase I\ personal (subject pronouns he, object pronouns them...), possessive (mine), reflexive (himself), relative... him\ ours\ herself Verbs to show an action or state walk\ Transitive, intransitive... believe\ try ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Further grammatical terms** **Transitive and Intransitive Verbs** A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and may also have an indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done. In contrast, an intransitive verb never takes an object. **Transitive verbs** A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to an object. He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent) She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave) In these sentences, something is being done to an object. A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct object. The indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done, although the words to and for are not used. In the following examples, notice the difference between the direct and indirect objects. The direct object ( letter) receives the action ( sent). The indirect object ( Robert) is the person to whom the letter is sent. He sent Robert the letter. The direct object ( lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object ( class) is the group to whom the lecture is given. She gave her class the lecture. Learn to recognise words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs. When these words are pronouns, they must be in the objective case. **Intransitive verbs** An intransitive verb does not take an object. She sleeps too much. He complains frequently. In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and complain. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. She sings every day. (no object = intransitive) She sings rock \'n\' roll tunes. ( rock \'n\' roll tunes receives the action of sings = transitive) **Gerunds** Gerunds are words that are formed from verbs but act as nouns. You can spot them because they will be [verb+ing] acting as a **noun**. E.g. I love [shopping]! The word 'shop' is a verb. Shopping is a verb with an --[ing] ending acting as a noun. It is the subject of this sentence. **\ Match the Parts of Speech** See if you can put the following words into the correct category. Top of Form See if you can put the following words into the correct category. **Adjective**- beautiful/ fastest/ huge **Adverb**- q1uickly/ sometimes **Conjunction**- and/ but **Determiner**- either / that **Exclamation**- ow! **Noun**- table/ health **Preposition**- on **Pronoun**- her/ us **Verb**- walk/ go **\ Root words** Word 'trees' or 'maps' can also be useful for identifying different parts of speech and helping students increase their vocabulary. You essentially start with a 'root' word, then try to find as many different variations on that word by adding prefixes (e.g. un-, mis-), suffixes (e.g. --ly, -ful) or by adapting different parts of the word. Take a look at the example below using the root word 'believe'  Before clicking onto the next page, and using a pen and paper, see how many words you can write down from the root 'understand'. **\ Root words continued** You will hopefully have written some of the below: Understanding\ Understandable\ Understandably\ Misunderstand\ Misunderstanding\ Pre-understood **Unit 2: Questions** Top of Form Look at the sentence, "He thought the test was really difficult even though he had studied so hard". Which word from the three below has a different grammatical function? A. really B. difficult C. so Bottom of Form Top of Form Which of the following words which all derive from the root 'satisfy' is NOT an adjective? A. satisfied B. satisfactory C. satisfactorily D. satisfying Top of Form In the following sentence, what part of speech is the word 'bravery? "His incredible bravery was rewarded with the badge of honour.\" A. noun B. adjective C. adverb D. verb Top of Form Which of the following can an adverb NOT modify? A. noun B. an adjective C. a verb D. another adverb **\ Unit 3: Sentence Structure** In this Unit, we will explore the main parts of a sentence -- morpheme, word, phrase, clause, subject and predicate. This will ensure you can discuss sentences and the key elements of sentences in your class without having any great hang-ups or difficulties with meaning. If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be something like this: *A set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.* Basically, a sentence is made up of different words to complete a purpose. There are several purposes: one might be to make a statement or another might be to ask a question. **Here's what you need to know:** **1. Sentence** A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense, its conclusion marked by a full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark). In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb. There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a sentence. The only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb. For example, *I exist* is as much of a sentence as is *The early bird catches the worm*. **2. Morpheme** A morpheme is the lowest unit of language that can convey meaning. You cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has meaning. Many simple words are morphemes, e.g. *boy, hut, talk.* Some words consist of two or more morphemes: - *child + ren* - *talk + s* - *blind +ness* *ren, s and ness *all convey some meaning, even though none of them is a word in its own right. If we try to break them down any further, we just end up with graphemes or phonemes: r + e+ n A grapheme is a term from linguistics meaning the smallest unit in writing that can change meaning. This is a letter or group of letters representing a single phoneme, e.g. b ng ea A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words. In writing, each word is made up of letters, and in speech a word is made up of a series of phonemes. There are 44 phonemes in standard modern English, fairly evenly divided between vowels and consonants. The phonemes in a word do not correspond to the letters with which we write it. For example, the word *singing *contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds : *s-i-ng-i-ng.* **3. Word** A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these words has a different job to do. Here are four words: *roared, mighty, lion, the* *Roared* is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence. *Mighty* is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don't have to have an adjective in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence. *Lion *is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a sentence. *The* is called a definite article. We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to or because there is only one of this thing in that place or in those surroundings. As you know, articles form part of a larger class of words known as 'determiners'. So, a definite article's job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking about. We don't have to have a definite article in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence. We put words together to make a phrase. **4. Phrase** A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of words, that forms a meaningful unit within a sentence: *mighty lion* Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase. [Noun phrase] The noun phrase can be a word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can function in a sentence as a subject object or prepositional object; it can be very simple or very complex. A noun phrase is built around a single noun or pronoun; for example (**bolded**): ***A pile of books** lay on the table.* *He was reading **a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.*** [Verb phrase] In grammar a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more helping (auxiliary) verbs and one main verb: - *can see* (helping verb *can* + main verb *see*) - *would have sent (*helping verbs *would + have* + past participle of main verb *send*) - *may have been planning* (helping verbs *may + have + be* + present participle of main verb *plan*) The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs are there only to help it. **The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. **Often its form changes as in the last two examples in which *send* becomes *sent* and *plan* becomes *planning*. We use phrases to make a clause. **5. Clauses** A clause is a larger word group that includes a little more information. It consists of at least two phrases - one is a noun phrase known as [the subject], and the other is the [verb]. A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words which makes a sense unit, but it might not be concluded by a full stop. A sentence may consist of two or more clauses, e.g. *She left (1) because it was late (2) and she was tired (3)*; this sentence contains three clauses. A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. For example: *The mighty lion / roared.* In this clause, the noun phrase is ***the mighty lion*** and the verb is ***roared.*** A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count main verbs. For each main verb there will be a clause. This all leads us to the sentence. **6. Subject** The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. For instance, in the sentence *The computers in the Learning Centre must be replaced*, the verb is *must be replaced*. What must be replaced? The computers. So the subject is* computers*. A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers. Remember: Modifiers are any word or group of words that change or add to the meaning of another word. The simple subject of the following sentence is *issue*: *The really important issue of the debate, stripped of all other considerations, is the morality of the nation*. Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an entire clause: ***What he had already forgotten about computer repair** could fill whole volumes.* The simple subject is not *computer repair*, nor is it *what he had forgotten*, nor is it *he*. Ask what it is that *could fill whole volumes*. Your answer should be that the entire bolded clause is the simple subject, i.e. ***What he had already forgotten about computer repair*** **7. Predicate** A predicate is the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to label the part of a sentence or clause which contains a verb and states something about the subject. So, the subject names the 'do-er' or 'be-er' of the sentence; the predicate does the rest of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb (all **bolded**): *The glacier **melted**.* *The glacier **has been melting.*** *The glacier **melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.*** [More Examples] The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate: - *People in glasshouses/shouldn't throw stones.* - *Sebastián and Alejandro/went on vacation.* - *I/love eating cocido madrileño.* **8. More about sentences and clauses** Now that you've grasped the terminology and usage, particularly 'sentence' and 'clause', we're sure you're ready to move on a bit further to types of sentences and clauses. If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we\'ve used, and a full stop at the end, we have a sentence. From a linguistic point of view sentences are the largest grammatical units. They are also intuitively complete in two senses: - first they may [stand alone] as informative units - second and more importantly [they include all required grammatical elements] *The mighty lion roared.* (has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a meaningful unit) This is a **simple sentence**. **Simple sentences** A **simple sentence** consists of [one clause] that has [a subject] and a [verb]. A simple sentence puts across one simple idea or thought. It's a sense unit -- a complete unit of meaning. Here are some examples of simple sentences: - *Carlos smiled.* (*Carlos *is the subject; *smiled* is the verb) - *The dog barked.* (*The dog* is the subject; *barked i*s the verb) - *The boys are playing soccer.* (*The boys* is the subject; *are playing* is the verb) - *Will you help me?* (*you *is the subject; *will help* is the verb) There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a sentence. Again the only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb. For example, *He phoned* is as much of a sentence as is *Atlético Madrid is one of the best teams in Europe.* Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a verb. It may have other words which help to make up the meaning. But look at this group of words: *Made in France.* This is correct English but it is not a sentence. It doesn't have a subject. To make it into a complete sentence with a [subject ]and [verb], we would need to change it to something like: *My fridge was made in France.* So, that's simple sentences done. But there are other types of sentences too. **Simple sentences** A **simple sentence** consists of [one clause] that has [a subject] and a [verb]. A simple sentence puts across one simple idea or thought. It's a sense unit -- a complete unit of meaning. Here are some examples of simple sentences: - *Carlos smiled.* (*Carlos *is the subject; *smiled* is the verb) - *The dog barked.* (*The dog* is the subject; *barked i*s the verb) - *The boys are playing soccer.* (*The boys* is the subject; *are playing* is the verb) - *Will you help me?* (*you *is the subject; *will help* is the verb) There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a sentence. Again the only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb. For example, *He phoned* is as much of a sentence as is *Atlético Madrid is one of the best teams in Europe.* Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a verb. It may have other words which help to make up the meaning. But look at this group of words: *Made in France.* This is correct English but it is not a sentence. It doesn't have a subject. To make it into a complete sentence with a [subject ]and [verb], we would need to change it to something like: *My fridge was made in France.* So, that's simple sentences done. But there are other types of sentences too. **Complex sentences** A **complex sentence** is used to put across more **detailed** ideas. A complex sentence contains one main clause that can make sense on its own and one or more minor or subordinate clauses that are linked to it. We'll call these minor clauses *subordinate clauses* from now on. It just sounds better. *When the noisy vehicle passed, **the mighty lion roared.*** The main clause is *the mighty lion roared* because it has a subject and a verb and [makes sense by itself.] The subordinate clause is *when the noisy vehicle passed*. Although it is a clause with a subject and a verb, it [doesn\'t make sense on its own]. It needs to be attached to a main clause for it to make sense. We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In the following examples the main clause is in bold and the two subordinate clauses are underlined. *[When the vehicle passed]**the mighty lion roared**[because it was annoyed.]* We can even split the main clause with a minor clause and still have a complex sentence*.* *[When the vehicle passed], **the mighty lion**[which was annoyed]**roared.*** [Another example] In a complex sentence there is one [main] idea and one or more subordinate ideas. We can take the main idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea stands on its own. Let's consider this sentence: *The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.* We can cut out the main idea (the **main clause**) and it will stand on its own as a meaningful unit: *The alarm was raised* (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its own, has a subject and a verb) What we are left with is: *as soon as the fire was spotted* (even although it has a subject and verb, this clause cannot stand on its own; it's not a meaningful unit as it stands and is therefore regarded as subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is a **subordinate clause.** Note: The main clause in the example above is also called an [independent] clause. It contains both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence. The subordinate clause in the example above is called a [dependent] clause. It contains a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It's dependent on the main clause for it to make sense. **Unit 3: Questions** Top of Form A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense, its conclusion marked by a full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark). True False Top of Form I eat. This is not a sentence. True False Top of Form You can break a morpheme down into smaller parts that have meaning. True False Top of Form A verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more helping (auxiliary) verbs and one main verb. True False Top of Form A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. True False Top of Form A simple sentence consists of one clause that has a subject and a verb. True False Top of Form Manufactured in Germany. This is correct English and is a sentence. True False Top of Form A subordinate clause is also called an independent clause. True False **\ Unit 4: Tenses** Part of the difficulty of teaching tenses is not only that many of us take for granted subtle distinctions ('I **went** to Brazil in 2006' vs 'I'**vebeen** to Brazil'). It's also the assumption that many of us have that other languages have neatly corresponding tenses. This, unfortunately, is not the case. **Whilst there are obviously overlaps, especially with many of the European languages, other cultures may have entirely different concepts of the relationship between time and tense.** Rosemary Aitken suggests an approach known as CASSIAL (Choose, Analyse, Sequence, Select, Identify context, Auxiliary materials, Learner error). Although this acronym may seem a tad long-winded, her approach is relatively self-explanatory: you need to think about the tense you've chosen to teach (what's its purpose? When do we use it? Are there any exceptions). Make sure you have enough material to illustrate your point and pre-empt any problems your students may have with grasping the nuances of that particular tense. A deeper understanding of tenses will develop as you become more and more familiar with teaching them and the contrast between each but here we will see an overview of the various English tenses for you to get to grips with. Look back at the two example sentences given in the first paragraph of this unit. The first "I **went** to Brazil in 2006" is an example of a past simple sentence, it's the verb 'go' in its past form.\ The second, "I'**vebeen** to Brazil" is the present perfect tense. We form the present perfect by using the have/has + the 'past participle' of the verb. In this case the past participle of the verb 'go' is 'been'. Don't get confused with the name '*present* perfect' though, we're still referring to the past. But if we're talking about the past in both cases, why do we need two different tenses? Why can't we say "I've been to Brazil in 2006"? This is where your 'Analyse' and 'Identify context' steps come in. See if you can answer the following questions. Top of Form 1\. Which of the two tenses talks about general past experience? A. past simple B. present perfect Top of Form 2\. Which of the two tenses requires a specific time period? A. past simple B. present perfect **Present and Past Tenses** Now let's look at the other English tenses in more detail\... **[Present]** **Present simple**: routine/habitual actions or things which are generally true - e.g. 'I work every Saturday', 'cats chase mice' **Present continuous/ Present progressive**: happening now or around now - [Form]: am/is/are + verb + -ing - e.g. 'John is working today' **[Past]** **Past simple**: completed, finished actions with a specific time reference - [Form]: use the past tense of the verb - e.g. 'I wrote 10 letters *yesterday*' **Past continuous/ Past progressive**: actions in progress at a particular time in the past, actions interrupted in the past, two actions happening simultaneously in the past - Form: was/were + verb + -ing - e.g. 'What were you doing at 10.00 last night?', 'I was writing letters' **Future Tense** **[Future]** **Present continuous**: fixed future plans/arrangements with a specific time reference - Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing - e.g. 'He's seeing Jim on *Sunday afternoon*' **'going to' + infinitive verb**: future intentions and predictions - e.g. 'She's going to have a baby!' **'will/won't/shall' + infinitive verb**: predictions, instant decisions, promises, suggestions and offers - e.g. 'I think it will rain tomorrow', 'I promise I'll do my homework later' **Future Continuous/ Future Progressive**: an action in progress at a particular time in the future - [Form]: will + be + verb + -ing - e.g. 'In 2050 we will all be driving electric cars' **Perfect Aspect** **Present Perfect (simple)**: general past experiences with *no* specific time reference, past actions that have importance in the present, in expressions with yet, since, for, already, just, actions which started in the past and continue now (*non-action verbs only*) - [Form]: have/has + past participle - e.g. 'I've worked here for 3 years', 'a car has crashed into a house', 'I've known her since I was at school' **Present Perfect Continuous**: actions which started in the past and continue now (action verbs), recent continuous actions - [Form]: have/has + been + verb + -ing - e.g. 'I've been learning English for 4 years', 'You're all red, what have you been doing?' -- 'I've been sunbathing in the garden' **Past Perfect (simple)**: when we're already talking about the past but want to refer to an earlier past time - [Form]: had + past participle - e.g. 'I couldn't get in because I had forgotten my keys' **Past Perfect Continuous**: an action in progress in the past leading up to another past moment - [Form]: had + been + verb + -ing - e.g. 'He had been cleaning the car for an hour before he stopped because of the rain' **Future Perfect (simple)**: an action that will have already happened before a specific point in the future - [Form]: will + have + past participle - e.g. 'I'll have already left by the time you arrive' **Future Perfect Continuous**: an action that will continue up until a certain future point - [Form]: will + have + been + verb + -ing - e.g. 'I'll have been working here for 10 years when I retire' - **Tenses Practice** - Top of Form - See if you can match the following sentences up with the correct tense. - I was sleeping when you called- **past continuous/progressive** - I\'ve been working in the garden all afternoon- **present perfect progressive** - I\'m playing tennis with Joe tomorrow- **present continuous/progressive** - I just ate a sandwich for lunch- **past simple** - Don\'t worry I\'ll have finished by 5pm **future perfect** - Bottom of Form You will already have a reasonably good grasp of tenses from the introductory materials above. But it's wise go a bit deeper into this. So, we have provided you with a FULL Tense Table which you should always keep by your side, just in case you are asked a question and your mind goes blank for a moment. It happens to us all! The table covers the 3 main verb structures for each tense: - Positive: *You like *Edinburgh. - Question: *Do you like *Edinburgh? - Negative: *You do not like *Edinburgh. This is useful when you decide to cover, say, the positive form and the negative form one after the other. The table will keep you right. Also, you may get an off-the-wall question from an advanced student: *What's the difference between the two forms of the Future Continuous (Progressive) Tense: will be or be going to?* Again, your mind may go blank for a moment, particularly when you're deep into another tense. You have your table to keep you right. In this scenario, you could give the student a copy of the relevant pages for her to read later and she can ask you questions later if she's still not sure. Just for interest, there's little difference between the two forms! In addition, the table has been constructed so that you can copy a page for a specific tense and give this out to your class. This will save you time rummaging around and making up your own table for that particular tense. **Here is the tense table. **Study it well and keep it by your side. It's not difficult; it just takes a bit of time if you're a little bit rusty. **FULL Tense Table: Twelve tenses in modern English** **A. There are three [simple tenses]:** 1\. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition *occurs* 2\. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition *occurred* 3\. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition *will occur* **B. There are three [perfect tenses]** 4\. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition *has occurred* relative to the present 5\. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition *had occurred* relative to the past 6\. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition *will have occurred* relative to the future. **C. There are six [continuous (also called *progressive*) tenses:]** 7\. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition *is occurring* in the present 8\. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition *was occurring* in the past 9\. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition *will be occurring* in the future 10\. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition *has been occurring* relative to the present 11\. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition *had been occurring* relative to the past 12\. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition *will have been occurring* relative to the future. **FULL Tense Table** **Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)** In regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the third person singular (he, she, it). **Subject** **Verb Stem** ------------------ --------------- *I* *Like* *you (singular)* *Like* *he/she/it* *Likes* *We* *Like* *you (plural)* *Like* *They* *Like* Positive: You like Edinburgh.\ Question: Do you like Edinburgh?\ Negative: You do not like Edinburgh. **Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past Tense)** This tense refers to actions in the past. In regular verbs, it is formed by adding --ed to the verb stem (or -d if the verb stem already ends in e): **Subject** **Verb Stem (adding --ed)** **Verb stem (adding -d)** ------------------ ----------------------------- --------------------------- *I* *Requested* *liked* *you (singular)* *Requested* *liked* *he/she/it* *Requested* *liked* *we* *Requested* *liked* *you (plural)* *Requested* *liked* *they* *Requested* *liked* Positive: You played tennis.\ Question: Did you play tennis?\ Negative: You didn't play tennis.\ Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → became, blow → blew, catch → caught. These just have to be learned.\ Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be, i.e. was and were, is used:\ Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.\ Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment?\ Negative: I wasn't annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment. **Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 1** For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem: **Subject** **will, shall** **Verb Stem** ------------------ ------------------------------- --------------- ------------- *I* *'ll, will, *and also* shall* *close* *the door.* *you (singular)* *'ll, will* *close* *the door.* *he/she/it* *'ll, will* *close* *the door.* *we* *'ll, will, *and also* shall* *close* *the door.* *you (plural)* *'ll, will* *close* *the door.* *they* *'ll, will* *close* *the door.* Note that we often use contractions when using *will* and *shall*, e.g. *I'll* and *We shan't*. *Shall* is much more common in British English than in American English.\ With *will*:\ Positive: You will see her on Sunday\ Question: Will you see her on Sunday?\ Negative: You won't see her on Sunday.\ With *shall*:\ Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.\ Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?\ Negative: We shan't see her on Sunday. **Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 2** Often called the *goingto* future, this form is a combination of *be* + *going to* + verb stem. **Subject** **am/is/are** **going to** **Verb Stem** ------------------ --------------- -------------- --------------- *I* *am; 'm* *going to* *object.* *you (singular)* *are; 're* *going to* *object.* *he/she/it* *Is; 's* *going to* *object.* *we* *are; 're* *going to* *object.* *you (plural)* *are; 're* *going to* *object.* *they* *are; 're* *going to* *object.* Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. *I'm, you're*\ Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.\ Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?\ Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight. **Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense** The present perfect tense is formed by combining the present tense of the verb *have* with the past participle of the main verb. **Subject** **Present Tense of the verb *have*** **Past Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ -------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- --------------- *I* *Have* *washed* *the dishes.* *you (singular)* *Have* *washed* *the dishes.* *he/she/it* *Has* *washed* *the dishes.* *we* *Have* *washed* *the dishes.* *you (plural)* *Have* *washed* *the dishes.* *they* *Have* *washed* *the dishes.* Note that we often use contractions when using *have*, e.g*. I've *and *we've* Positive: *You have visited the Prado Museum before.* Question: *Have you visited the Prado Museum before?* Negative: *You have not visited the Prado Museum before.* **Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense** This tense is formed by *had,* followed by the past participle: **Subject** **Had** **Past Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ --------- -------------------------------------- ---------- *I* *Had* *Failed* *again!* *you (singular)* *Had* *Failed* *again!* *he/she/it* *Had* *Failed* *again!* *we* *Had* *Failed* *again!* *you (plural)* *Had* *Failed* *again!* *they* *Had* *Failed* *again!* Note that we often use contractions when using *had*, e.g*. I hadn't* Positive: *You had studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.* Question: *Had you studied Spanish before you went to Madrid?* Negative: *You hadn't studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.* **Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense** This is a tense formed by *will have* followed by the past participle. **Subject** **will have** **Past Participle of the Main Verb** ----------------- --------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------- *I* *will have* *finished* *my work by 7pm.* *you(singular)* *will have* *finished* *my work by 7pm.* *he/she/it* *will have* *finished* *my work by 7pm.* *we* *will have* *finished* *my work by 7pm.* *you (plural)* *will have* *finished* *my work by 7pm.* *they* *will have* *finished* *my work by 7pm.* Positive: *Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.* Question: *Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?* Negative: *Dad won't have cooked dinner by the time we get back.* Sometimes, the *going to* format is used (*am/is/are* + *going to have* + past participle\]: Positive: *Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.* **Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back?** Negative: *Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.* Either form can usually be used. **Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the *Present Progressive Tense*)** This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb *be *and the present participle of the main verb. **Subject** **am/is/are** **Present Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ --------------- ----------------------------------------- --------- *I* *am* *Drinking* *Coke.* *you (singular)* *are* *Drinking* *Coke.* *he/she/it* *is* *Drinking* *Coke.* *we* *are* *Drinking* *Coke.* *you (plural)* *are* *Drinking* *Coke.* *they* *are* *Drinking* *Coke.* Positive: *You ***are watching*** TV.* **Question: Are*** you ***watching*** TV?* Negative: *You ***are not watching*** TV.* **Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the *Past Progressive Tense*)** This tense is formed by *was* or *were* followed by the present participle of the main verb. **Subject** **was/were** **Present Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ -------------- ----------------------------------------- --------- *I* *Was* *Drinking* *Coke.* *you (singular)* *Were* *Drinking* *Coke.* *he/she/it* *Was* *Drinking* *Coke.* *we* *Were* *Drinking* *Coke.* *you (plural)* *Were* *Drinking* *Coke.* *they* *Were* *Drinking* *Coke.* Positive: *You were sleeping when she phoned.* Question: *Were you sleeping when she phoned?* Negative: *You were not sleeping when she phoned.* **Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the *Future Progressive Tense*) Form 1** There are two forms. Form 1: This tense is formed by *will be* followed by the present participle. **Subject** **will be** **Present Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ ------------- ----------------------------------------- --------- *I* *will be* *Dining* *late.* *you (singular)* *will be* *Dining* *late.* *he/she/it* *will be* *Dining* *late.* *we* *will be* *Dining* *late.* *you (plural)* *will be* *Dining* *late.* *they* *will be* *Dining* *late.* Positive: *You'll*** be cooking dinner when they arrive.** **Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?** Negative: *You ***won't be cooking dinner when they arrive.** **Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the *Future Progressive Tense*) Form 2** Form 2: This form is made up of: *am/is/are* + *going to be* + present participle **Subject** **am/is/are** **going to be** **Present Participle** ------------------ --------------- ----------------- ------------------------ ------------ *I* *am* *going to be* *jogging* *to work.* *you (singular)* *are* *going to be* *jogging* *to work.* *he/she/it* *is* *going to be* *jogging* *to work.* *we* *are* *going to be* *jogging* *to work.* *you (plural)* *are* *going to be* *jogging* *to work.* *they* *are* *going to be* *jogging* *to work.* Positive: *You ***are going to be sleeping when she gets home.** **Question: Are*** you ***going to be sleeping when she gets home?** Negative: *You ***are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.** Remember this: It is possible to use either *will be* or *be going to* in order to create the Future Continuous tense. There's not much difference. **Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the *Present Perfect Progressive Tense*)** This tense is formed by combining the present perfect of the verb *be* with the present participle of the main verb. **Subject** ***has/have been*** **Present Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ --------------------- ----------------------------------------- ----------------------------- *I* *have been* *Serving* *customers for nine hours.* *you (singular)* *have been* *Serving* *customers for nine hours.* *he/she/it* *has been* *Serving* *customers for nine hours.* *we* *have been* *Serving* *customers for nine hours.* *you (plural)* *have been* *Serving* *customers for nine hours.* *they* *have been* *Serving* *customers for nine hours.* *Positive: You ***have been standing ***here for two hours.* **Question: Have*** you ***been standing ***here for two hours?* *Negative: You ***have not been standing ***here for two hours.* **Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the *Past Perfect Progressive Tense*)** This tense is formed by using *had been* followed by the present participle. **Subject** **had been** **Present Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ -------------- ----------------------------------------- ------------------- *I* *had been* *waiting* *for four hours.* *you (singular)* *had been* *waiting* *for four hours.* *he/she/it* *had been* *waiting* *for four hours.* *we* *had been* *waiting* *for four hours.* *you (plural)* *had been* *waiting* *for four hours.* *they* *had been* *waiting* *for four hours.* Positive: *You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.* Question: *Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?* Negative: *You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.* **Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense** Usual Form: This tense is formed by using *will have been* followed by the present participle. **Subject** ***will have been*** **Present Participle of the Main Verb** ------------------ ---------------------- ----------------------------------------- -------------------- *I* *will have been* *studying* *for three hours.* *you (singular)* *will have been* *studying* *for three hours.* *he/she/it* *will have been* *studying* *for three hours.* *we* *will have been* *studying* *for three hours* *you (plural)* *will have been* *studying* *for three hours.* *they* *will have been* *studying* *for three hours.* Positive: *You will ***have been waiting*** here for two hours.* **Question: Will you have been waiting*** here for two hours?* Negative: *You ***will not have been waiting*** here for two hours.* Another Form: *am/is/are* + *going to have been* + present participle. This is not used as much as the usual form above. Positive: *You ***are going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back.** **Question: Are*** you ***going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back?** Negative: *You ***are not going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back.** NOTE: It's possible to use either *form* with little or no difference in meaning. **Unit 4: Questions** Top of Form Which tense do we use to talk about a finished past action with a specific time? A. present perfect B. past simple C. past continuous/progressive D. past perfect Top of Form Can we use non-action verbs (e.g. know, like, be etc.) in a continuous/progressive tense? Y/N? Yes No Top of Form How do we form the past perfect continuous? A. had + past participle B. had + been + verb + ing C. have + part participle D. has + been + verb + ing Top of Form Which tense do we use for future plans without a specific time? A. will + infinitive B. present continuous C. going to+ infinitive D. future continuous/progressive Top of Form You scored goals. This statement is in the Past Simple Tense (also called the Simple Past Tense). True False Top of Form Are you going to watch the game tonight? This question is in the Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense). True False Top of Form You hadn't eaten paella before you went to Spain. This statement is in the Present Perfect Tense. True False Top of Form The match will have finished by the time we get back. This statement is in the Future Perfect Tense. True False Top of Form You were not driving when she phoned. This statement is in the Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present Progressive tense). True False **Unit 5: Teaching grammar** Well, now you know all the requisite grammar. But how do you teach it? We're going to show you how so that you'll be able to handle this from Day 1 -- and get it right first time. We're going to cover the 3 key areas which will ensure you get it right first time: 1. 2. 3. **If you take your time with this and absorb it all, it's unlikely you'll ever have to check any book or site about teaching grammar. Unless, of course, you really like reading grammar books!** **Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar** **1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar** The term *grammar* generally refers to the rules and conventions by which words are ordered and changed to form a sentence. **Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.** [Prescriptive grammar] sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write 'correct' or 'good' English. Sometimes, these 'rules' are based on observation of the way in which 'educated' speakers actually use the language. At other times, they are based on what the speaker was taught at school, many years ago. For example: *My teacher always said you should never start a sentence with [And ]*or*[But].* Oh, really? Prescriptive grammar rules are the right rules, according to some 'experts', e.g. *Never start a sentence with [And]* or *[But.]* Prescriptive rules make a value judgment about the correctness of an utterance. [Descriptive grammar] seeks to describe how language is actually used in the real world. Descriptive rules accept the patterns a speaker actually uses and try to account for them. Descriptive rules allow for different varieties of a language; they don\'t ignore a construction simply because some prescriptive grammarian doesn\'t like it. Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive grammar is a reaction to the way people speak and is accepting of alternative, less nit-picking forms. Descriptive rules also tend to change since language itself is always undergoing change. Have a look at these example sentences: 1. *Let's start at the very beginning.* Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the beginning is a specific start point and you can't make it any more specific by using *very*. But descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English, So, we'll align with the descriptive side and we'll keep *very *in. 2. *That's very true, absolutely true.* Native speakers also say *very true* or *absolutely true*. Again, prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because you can't have anything stronger than *true*. Something cannot be *more true*. But, again, descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again we'll align with the descriptive side and use *very true* and *absolutely true.* 3. *Who do you want to speak to?* A proponent of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine. A proponent of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we should never end a sentence with a preposition (i.e. *to*). To satisfy the prescriptive group we would need to change this to: *To whom do you want to speak?* To us, this seems a bit cumbersome and out-dated but you decide which is best. 4. *Never start a sentence with [And]* or *[But.]* Let's have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further by exploring these sentences: *It's a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those changes go far enough?* *It's a pretty smart long-term business plan. **But** do you think those changes go far enough?* The first sentence fits with the prescriptive rule. The second does not and fits with the descriptive approach. There's no doubt in our minds that the second sentence creates a more forceful effect. The introductory conjunction *But *gives more weight to the thought expressed in the sentence and is more emphatic. So, again, we'll align with the descriptive side in this particular context. **But don't get the impression that prescriptive rules are not important:** 1\. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard form of a language that is accepted by most speakers of that language. By doing so, this allows us to be understood by the greatest possible number of individuals. 2\. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign language. It just wouldn't work if there were no guidelines for, say, learning English. 3\. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn the rules of the standard dialect and employ them in appropriate social circumstances -- if they wish to. Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not accepted by many groups and can inhibit a person's progress in society, and in business. [Here are some common prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn't exist, there would be lots of confusion:] The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb. We mustn't say *He go to school*. In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: *[M]y computer isn't working. [I]t needs to be fixed.* Use subject pronouns after the verb *be* (*It [wasI] who phoned you* NOT *It [was me]