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OUR UNIVERSE | THE SOLAR SYSTEM | THE EARTH | SUBSYSTEMS| CYCLE ୨— Our Universe —୧ ❱ MAIN SEQUENCE STARS Structure, Composition, and Age of the Universe. - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium It is made...

OUR UNIVERSE | THE SOLAR SYSTEM | THE EARTH | SUBSYSTEMS| CYCLE ୨— Our Universe —୧ ❱ MAIN SEQUENCE STARS Structure, Composition, and Age of the Universe. - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium It is made up of: atoms in their cores; outward pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational forces. ❱ 4.6% baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of protons, electrons, ❱ LIGHT YEARS and neutrons that comprises atoms, planets, stars, - the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of galaxies, and other bodies. length used to measure astronomical distance ❱ 24% cold dark matter ❱ NUCLEOSYNTHESIS - matter that has gravity but does not emit light. - requires very high temperature. The minimum ❱ 71.4% dark energy temperature for Hydrogen fusion is 5x106 oC. - a source of anti-gravity; a force that counteracts gravity and causes the universe to expand. It can The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in explain the observed accelerating expansion of the the accompanying planetary system. universe. ❱ HERTZSPRUNG–RUSSELL DIAGRAM Hydrogen, helium, and lithium - a two-dimensional graph, devised independently by - are the three most abundant elements Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873–1967) and Henry Norris Russell (1877–1957), in which the absolute ୨— Stars —୧ magnitudes of stars are plotted against their spectral types. Stars are found to occupy only certain regions Stars are the building block of galaxies born out of of such a diagram. clouds of gas and dust in galaxies. Instabilities within the clouds eventually results into gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up, and transformation to a protostar, the core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in. ❱ PROTOSTAR - an early stage in the formation of a star resulting from the gravitational collapse of gases. ❱ THERMONUCLEAR REACTION - a nuclear fusion reaction responsible for the energy produced by stars.  ୨— Galaxy —୧ ❱ DOPPLER EFFECT - an increase (or decrease) in the frequency of Galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of sound, light, or other waves as the source and galaxies form superclusters. In between the clusters observer move toward (or away from) each other. is practically an empty space. But at a large scale, it - measure relative velocities of stars by doppler shift. appears homogeneous and isotropic. The universe is 13.8 billion years old. ❱ ISOTROPIC - means the same physical properties as measured in the same direction. ❱ The diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion light-years. ❱ 1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km ❱ Its density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3 2. The Flat, Close and Open Universes ❱ a model of the universe in which the universe expands forever because there is not enough mass ୨— Theories about the Universe —୧ to counteract the expansion by means of gravitational attraction. 1. Expanding Universe ❱ galaxies and clusters of galaxies were in fact flying 3. Steady State Theory apart from each other at great speed, and that the universe was therefore definitively growing in size. ❱ proposed in 1948 by Hermann Bondi and Thomas ❱ proposed by Edwin Hubble, in 1929 and supported Gold and by Fred Hoyle. by the discovery of the “redshift” and as just as ❱ It maintains that new matter is created as the predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. universe expands thereby maintaining its density. Some evidences: 4. Big Bang Theory ❱ REDSHIFT - notice that the light coming from these galaxies ❱ postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe was shifted a little towards the red end of the expanded from a tiny (all the matter and energy in spectrum due to the Doppler effect (known as the universe are crammed into a tiny compact point “redshift”). which indicated that the galaxies were (sometimes called singularity), dense and hot mass moving away from us. to its present size and much cooler state. ❱ Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) ❱ This theory was proposed by Alexander Friedmann - referred to as the leftover light from the Big Bang. and Georges Lemaitre in 1920. - can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band from all directions Big Bang Theory rests on two ideas: -blackbody radiation with an average temperature General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. of about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero. - accidentally discovery in 1964 by Arno Penzias ❱ Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (GTR), and Robert Woodrow Wilson which earned them - gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-time the physics Nobel Prize in 1978. and no longer described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton. ❱ The Cosmological Principle ❱ HORIZON - assumes that the universe is homogeneous and - Based on the BBT, distant regions of space in isotropic when averaged over large scales. opposite directions of the sky are so far apart that they could never have been in causal contact with each other. However, the evidence showing the uniformity of CMB temperature shows that these regions must have had contact in the past. ] 5. Inflation Theory ❱ proposed by Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhardt, Andy Albrecht. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THE BIG BANG WHICH LED TO THE CREATION OF FORCES ❱ regarded as the extension of the big bang AND CELESTIAL BODIES KNOWN TODAY: ❱ proposed a period of exponential expansion of the universe prior to a more gradual big bang expansion. ❱ Inflationary epoch ❱ during the rapid expansion, the energy density of - during which the universe rapidly expanded, it grew the universe was dominated by a cosmological from the size of an atom to the size of a grapefruit. constant type of vacuum energy which later on - the universe at this time was piping hot and it decayed to produce matter and radiation which filled churned with electrons, quarks, and other particles. up the universe. ❱ Formation of the universe ❱ Formation of the basic elements ❱ Radiation Era 6. Oscillating Universe Theory ❱ Matter denomination ❱ follows the GTR of Einstein with the universe in ❱ Birth of stars and galaxies positive curvature. ❱ this curvature results in the expansion of the Two ways by which astronomers estimate the age universe for a time, and then to its contraction due to of the universe: the pull of its gravity in a perpetual cycle of Big Bang and Big Crunch. ❱ by estimating the age of the looking oldest stars ❱ by measuring the rate of expansion of the universe and extrapolating back to the Big Bang. 7. String Theory ❱ theoretical framework in which the assembly of Flaws of Big Bang Theory particle type is replaced by a fundamental building block called a string. ❱ FLATNESS ❱ the string may either be open or closed and are - The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe free to vibrate at different modes (electron, photon, (WMAP) revealed that the geometry of the universe and even graviton). is nearly flat. However, according to the Big Bang theory, there should be curvature as time grows. ❱ consistent with the quantum gravity ❱ MONOPOLE - The Big Bang theory predicted the production of 8. M-Theory heavy stable magnetic monopoles in the early universe. However, there were no magnetic ❱ considers 11 space-time dimensions, the origin of monopoles that have been observed. the universe occurs as a result of the contact of two-hyperdimensional branes.  ୨— Additional Notes —୧ Origins of the Universe 101 | National Geographic Origin of the universe: A. Non-scientific thoughts or ideas ❱ Big Bang Theory B. Scientific thoughts on the origin of the universe - the most widely accepted explanation despite multiple scientific theories and creation of myths. Non-Scientific Thoughts or Ideas - states that the universe began as a hot and infinitely dense point. Only a few millimeters wide, it was similar to a supercharged black hole. ❱ Creation of Myths - a symbolic narrative of the beginning of the world - this tiny singularity violently exploded, and from as understood by a culture. this explosion, this bang, that all matter, energy, space, and time were created. ❱ Ancient Egyptians - believed in many gods and myths which narrate ❱ Radiation and Matter Eras that the world arose from an infinite sea at the first - after the explosion rising of the sun. - two major stages of the universe's evolution. ❱ The Kuba people of Central Africa - they are defined by the key events that helped - tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) shape the universe. who, alone in a dark and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon. ❱ Radiation Era ❱ Gods sacrificed Purusha - named for the dominance radiation after Big Bang. - in India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed - this era is made of smaller stages call epochs that Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, occurred within the universe's first tens of thousands and mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon of years. respectively. ❱ Monotheistic religions RADIATION ERA (EPOCHS) - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a Planck Quark supreme being created the universe, including man and other living organisms. Grand Unified Hadron ❱ Divine Creation Theory Inflationary Lepton - from the book of Genesis, God created the entire cosmos in six days. Electroweak Nuclear - Epochs and their definition - Scientific Thoughts or Ideas / Theories - The 8 theories about the Universe The earliest epoch. No matter 1. Expanding Universe existed in the universe at this 1 time, only energy and the 2. The flat, close, and open universes ancestor to the four forces of 3. Steady State Theory Planck Epoch nature, the superforce. At the 4. Big Bang Theory end of this stage, however, a 5. Inflation Theory key event occurred in which 6. Oscillating Theory gravity split away from the 7. String Theory superforce (gravity, strong 8. M-Theory nuclear, weak, electromagnetic).  2 Named for the three remaining unified forces of nature. This In this stage, the universe's Grand epoch ended when one of those 9 temperature cooled down Unification forces, called strong, or strong enough for electrons to attach to Epoch nuclear, broke away. Atomic Epoch nuclei for the first time. Called recombination, this process helped create the universe's During which the universe second element, hydrogen. 3 rapidly expanded, it grew from the size of an atom to the size Inflationary of a grapefruit. The universe at This hydrogen, along with Epoch this time was piping hot and it helium atoms, dotted the churned with electrons, quarks, 10 universe with atomic clouds. and other particles. Within the clouds, small pockets Galactic Epoch of gas may have had enough gravity to cause atoms to 4 When the last two forces, collect. These clusters of atoms, Electroweak (electromagnetic and weak), formed during the galactic Epoch finally split off. epoch, became the seedlings of galaxies. All of the universe's ingredients 5 were present, however, the Stars began to form. And in universe was still too hot and 11 doing so, they queued the latest Quark Epoch dense for the subatomic and current stage of the particles to form. Stellar Epoch universe's development, the stellar epoch. 6 The universe cooled down enough for quarks to bind The formation of stars then caused a tremendous Hadron Epoch together and form protons and ripple effect and helped shape the universe as we neutrons. know it. Heat within the stars caused the conversion of helium and hydrogen into almost all the remaining elements in the universe. In turn, The radiation era's last two those elements became the building blocks for 7 and 8 stages, the protons and planets, moons, life, everything we see today. neutrons underwent a Lepton and significant change. They fused Nuclear Epoch and created nuclei. And in doing so, they created the first chemical element in the universe, helium. ❱ Matter Era - defined by the presence and predominance of matter in the universe. - It features three epochs that span billions of years. - The vast majority of the universe's life span, and includes the present day. - Includes 3 epochs (atomic, galactic, and stellar)  dimension that is invisible to us - and there could be 10 Alternatives to The Big Bang Theory other 3D universes doing the same thing. ❱ Quasi-Steady State Model - If two 3D universes were to collide and stick - Formerly known as the Steady State Theory which together in this higher dimension, they would create opposed the Big Bang Theory. something that looked like the Big Bang within the - This said that as the Universe expands little 3D universes themselves. pockets of matter are spontaneously created - The energy of the higher dimensional collision throughout the universe, called ‘little bangs’. becomes the searing temperature that we see at the - However, it still fails to deal with the radiation that beginning of our universe. was discovered. ❱ Gravity’s Rainbow ❱ Eternal Inflation - This theory states that light experiences gravity to a - This intense inflationary energy was then converted different degree, based on its wavelength, and into matter and radiation, after this, the growth, or therefore its color. ‘inflation’, of the universe slowed substantially. - In this system, for example, red light would feel - However, proponents of the Eternal Inflation theory, gravity more strongly than blue light due to its longer like physicist Alan Guth, claim that the intense period wavelength. The effect is usually very weak, but of expansion didn’t need to stop all at once. extreme objects like supermassive black holes should be able to demonstrate it. - He said that our universe was just one small pocket of a much, much larger universe. The much larger - As you approach the beginning of the Universe, universe is expanding incredibly quickly, while our Rainbow Gravity becomes more important, due to its universe is a small bubble within it that slowed down. more extreme state. - The implication of this theory is that there are many - When this has been modeled, scientists find that other slowly expanding bubble universes emerging in the Big Bang’s singularity can disappear and in fact the greater universe. there are instances in which the Big Bang doesn’t even occur, with time stretching back forever. ❱ Mirrored Universe - This suggests that the universe has always existed. - The Mirrored Universe theory states that if you were in the mirror universe, you would still feel as if ❱ The Slow Freeze time was going forwards. - Christof Wetterich claims that the universe was - In 2014 Julian Barbour at the University of Oxford actually cold and evolving slowly. He thinks that the modeled a system of particles under gravity. past just appears hotter to us, rather than actually being hotter. He asserts that gravity weakens with - When the particles expanded outwards, he found time, while particles get heavier. that they did so in two different directions of time. Barbour likened his particle model to a replica of our - In this theory, the universe has always existed in a universe, coming to the conclusion that the state of deep freeze, before it began to thaw around expansion of the Big Bang should have created two the time of the Big Bang. universes moving in two different time directions. - This is impossible to prove, as we’re unable to - On the ‘other side’ of our Big Bang is a mirror measure whether all particles in the universe are universe, moving in the opposite direction in time. getting heavier, as there is nothing to use as a benchmark that wouldn’t change itself. ❱ Colliding in Higher Dimensions - Scientists have been critical of his model, saying it’s - Princeton String Theorist Paul Steinhardt has come like arguing a ruler is getting shorter, rather than the up with his own idea that explains the Big Bang. line it’s measuring getting longer. - Steinhardt argues that our 3D universe can be imagined as an object moving through a higher ❱ Digital Simulation - Nick Bostrom argued in 2003 that in such a ❱ Cyclic Universes scenario we are almost certain to be in a simulated - Theory proposed by Roger Penrose. universe because simulated universes outnumber - By using a supercomputer to simulate a 9 the one real universe by such a staggering amount dimensional universe, Sang-Woo Kim and Jun that the probability that we are living in the Nishimura have discovered that, after a given time, a unadulterated ‘Universe Classic’ is as good as zero. fluctuation will occur and 3 dimensions will break off - In this theory, the universe may have started with a and rapidly unwrap. Big Bang, but that Big Bang was started with the - Neatly expressed a very attractive theory that you tapping of an Enter key. yourself may have thought of: the universe repeats in ❱ Quantum Graviton Fluid a cycle with each new big bang. - After making a few tweaks to Einstein’s theory of - Penrose says that the state of the end of our General Relativity using quantum mechanics, universe, which stretches off into infinity, is in many scientists have suggested that the Big Bang might ways mathematically identical to the singularity at the not be correct. These quantum adjustments Big Bang. He says that this mathematical essentially remove the Big Bang’s singularity - the resemblance is not just a concept, but also a reality. point where the universe was infinitely dense and - At the end of each universe, another one begins. hot. He thinks he can detect the echo of a collision of - It doesn’t just remove the singularity, however, it supermassive black holes from the most recent also seems to remove the Big Bang itself. previous universe. - This model has suggested that the universe is infinitely old and full of quantum fluid. This fluid is The Expanding Universe | National Geographic literally everywhere and is made up of tiny particles called gravitons that mediate gravity. - Scientists assumed the Big Bang would slow down - According to this theory, dark energy arises and gravity would pull things back together but that's naturally out of the quantum adjustments. However, not what they were seeing in the cosmos. there is still a lot of work to prove that this model is - Astronomers think that the universe appears to be an accurate description of reality. expanding at an accelerating rate now we have no ❱ Dimensional Ripping idea what's causing this. - There are a pair of superstring theorists who believe that the universe has 9 dimensions of space and 1 dimension of time, and they think they have ❱ Cosmic Microwave Background found an alternative explanation to the Big Bang. - About 1% of the static noise we hear on TV and other materials is from the CMB - By using a supercomputer to simulate a 9 dimensional universe, Sang-Woo Kim and Jun - The oldest map in the universe Nishimura have discovered that, after a given time, a - Also known as the Afterglow of the Bigbang fluctuation will occur and 3 dimensions will break off - This map provides us a clear window into the early and rapidly unwrap. universe. It is the most deep and complete collection - Those 3 dimensions are the ones we know and of cosmic knowledge that we have. love, and this dimensional disentanglement is supposedly the creation of our universe. After these 3 dimensions broke off in the model, the physicists saw a similar Big Bang and rapid inflation characteristic of our own universe. - What happened to the other 6 dimensions? Apparently, they are so small as to be unnoticeable.  ୨— The Solar System —୧ ❱ FROSTLINE - the distance of the solar nebula from the protostar. Layout of the Solar System : ❱ INSIDE THE FROSTLINE - inside, the light elements remain gaseous where ❱ The solar system comprises the Sun, eight planets, temperature is high. dwarf planets such as Pluto, satellites, asteroids, comets, other minor bodies such as those in the ❱ OUTSITE THE FROSTLINE Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust. - outside, the gases condense into ice where temperature is cooler. ❱ The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter. Meteoroids are smaller asteroids. They are thought The planets were divided by a FROST LINE; warm of as remnants of a “failed planet”—one that did not regions (where terrestrial planets are formed) and form due to disturbance from Jupiter’s gravity the outer region (where Jovian planets are formed) ❱ The Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune (30 to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth distance = 150 million km) and ୨— Other Members of the Solar System —୧ comprise numerous rocky or icy bodies a few meters to hundreds of kilometers in size. ❱ Dwarf Planets - a celestial body resembling a small planet but ❱ The Oort cloud marks the outer boundary of the lacking certain technical criteria that are required for solar system and is composed mostly of icy objects it to be classed as such. ❱ The solar system revolves around the galactic - orbit around the sun center once in about 240 million years - have sufficient mass for self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a nearly ❱ radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the round-shape Earth and solar system are 4.6 billion years old. - has not cleared the neighborhood around it. ୨— Milky Way Galaxy —୧ - is not a satellite - Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and Ceres. ❱ part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies ❱ Asteroids - made up of rocks ❱ a huge disc and spiral-shaped aggregation of about - sometimes referred to as “minor planets” at least 100 billion stars and other bodies. - Ceres – first known asteroid ❱ its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or - NEAs – Near Earth Asteroids bulge of many, many stars, at the center of which lies a supermassive blackhole. ❱ Comets ❱ it is about 100 million light years across (1 light year - composed mainly of ice (frozen water and gas), = 9.4607 × 1012 km) nonvolatile dust (silicate minerals and carbon grains). - Kuiper Belt – area beyond Neptune where the short ❱ a huge disc and spiral-shaped aggregation of about period originated. at least 100 billion stars and other bodies. - Oort Cloud – beyond Kuiper Belt where the long ❱ based on the assumption that they are remnants of period comets originated. the materials from which they were formed. ❱ it is about 100 million light years across (1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km) ❱ Meteoroids ❱ Nebular Hypothesis - A meteor is the streak of light that you see in the - In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel sky when a small piece of cometary or asteroidal Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace independently material enters the atmosphere at high speed and thought of a rotating gaseous cloud (nebula) that burns up because of the frictional heating from the cools and contracts in the middle to form the sun and piece’s collision with the atoms and molecules in the the rest into a disc that become the planets. atmosphere. - Before the small bit of comet or asteroid enters (Kant-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis) Earth’s atmosphere, it floats through interplanetary It states that the nebula begins to collapse due to gravitational pull. As it contracted, it spun more space and is called a meteoroid. rapidly. The spinning cloud flattens into a - Most meteoroids that enter the atmosphere burn up pancake-shaped object with a bulge at the center. completely as meteors. In some cases, however, the As the nebula collapse further, local regions meteoroid does not completely burn up, and the contract on their own and became the sun and the planets. object actually makes it to Earth’s surface - The chunk that has survived its fiery journey is Flaws: This theory failed to account for the called a meteorite. distribution of angular momentum in the solar system. Elemental Abundances on Earth, Meteorites, and Universe (atoms per 10 000 Silicon atoms). ୨— ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESES —୧ These suggest that the Earth and the solar system could be derived from materials with composition similar to that of the universe. ❱ Buffon’s Collision Theory - proposed by George Louis Leclerc, Comte de The presence of heavy elements such as lead, silver, and uranium on Earth suggests that it was Buffon in 1749. derived from remnants of a supernova and that the - sun-comet encounter that sent matter to form Sun is a second-generation star made by planets. recycling materials. ❱ Tidal Hypothesis - proposed by James Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys in 1917. - otherwise known as the Jeans-Jeffreys’ Tidal ୨— Origin of the Solar System —୧ Hypothesis. ❱ Descartes’ Vortex Theory - this explained the origin of the solar system as a - proposed by Rene Descartes result of a close encounter between the Sun and a second star - the solar system was formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in - as a speeding massive star passed near the Sun, it the pre-solar materials. pulled off materials due to gravitational attraction. - the torn-off materials subsequently condensed to form the planets. Descartes argued, that bodies once in motion remain in motion in a straight line unless and until ❱ Planetesimal Hypothesis they are deflected from this line by the impact of - Proposed by Thomas Chamberlain and Forrest Ray another body. Moulton in 1904. - This involves a star much bigger than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments from both out which planetesimals were formed. ❱ Sun’s Companion Star - Collision of the Earth with large object produces the - proposed by Ray Lyttleton in 1940 moon. This is supported by the composition of the - a sun’s companion star colliding with another to moon very similar to the Earth's Mantle form a proto-planet that breaks up to form Jupiter - When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its and Saturn. solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and volatiles from the inner planets ❱ Accretion Theory - proposed by Otto Schmidt Is Earth a closed or an open system? - proposed that the Sun passed through a dense interstellar cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous - Earth system is essentially a closed system. It envelope that eventually became the planets. receives energy from the sun and returns some of - cannot explain how the planets and satellites were this energy to space to beyond Mars to form the gas formed. The time required to form the planets giants leaving behind a system we know today. exceeds the age of the solar system. - However, inside the earth is an open system. ❱ Capture Theory - proposed by Michael Mark Woolfson - this theory is a variation of James Jeans’ ❱ El Niño near-collision hypothesis - also called ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) - in this scenario, the Sun drags from a near - It starts with the unusual warming of the central proto-star a filament of material which becomes the Pacific Ocean accompanied by the weakening of the planets. Collisions between proto-planets close to trade winds. the Sun produced the terrestrial planets; - The warming of the central Pacific Ocean results to condensations in the filament produced the giant an eastward shift of the low-pressure area (away planets and their satellites. from the Indo Pacific). - different ages for the Sun and planets are predicted ❱ Closed System by this theory - a system in which there is only an exchange of heat ❱ Protoplanet Hypotheses - Current Hypothesis or energy and no exchange of matter. - About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due to gravity - As most of the mass move to the center to eventually become a proto-Sun, the remaining materials form a disc that will eventually become the planets and momentum is transferred outwards. - Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking to each other to form larger and larger bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-planets are accretions of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and helium. - High-speed collisions with large objects destroy much of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde rotation.  ୨— The Earth's Subsystems —୧ ୨— Biogeochemical Cycle —୧ ❱ are pathways by which chemical substances move Atmosphere through both biotic and abiotic components of the atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that Earth. envelopes the lithosphere. The present atmosphere is composed of 78% ❱ allows the circulation of important chemical nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and nutrients that form and support life – carbon, trace amount of other gases. nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium and water – Redistribution of heat on the Earth's surface through the biological and physical world. through atmospheric circulation. constant exchange of heat and moisture ❱ also maintains the balance of substances in the between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere different subsystems on Earth through the hydrologic cycle ୨— The Carbon Cycle —୧ Lithosphere ❱ What make's the Earth's Biosphere an open includes the rocks of the crust and upper mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic system in terms of energy? inner core. - the earth is continuously bombarded with energy includes the Plate Tectonics as an important from the Sun and radiates most of that energy as process shaping the surface of the Earth. The heat back into space. primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal - nature's way of reusing carbon atoms, which travel heat, such as that in mantle convection. from the atmosphere into organisms in the Earth and then back into the atmosphere over and over again. Biosphere Most carbon is stored in rocks and sediments, while the rest is stored in the ocean, atmosphere, and the set of all life forms on Earth. living organisms. covers all ecosystems the base of the food chain comprises ❱ 4 steps of carbon cycle photosynthetic organisms. - Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2. during photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from - Carbon as CO2 is absorbed by autotrophs such as the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. green plants. the biosphere is a CO2 sink, (an important part - Animals consume plants, thereby, incorporating of the carbon cycle.) carbon into their system. - Animals and plants die, their bodies decompose and carbon is reabsorbed back into the atmosphere Hydrosphere The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and indirectly through the weathering of rocks. Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.  ୨— The Nitrogen Cycle —୧ ୨— The Oxygen Cycle —୧ -nitrogen is picked up as inorganic compound from the atmosphere and is changed into organic form by - the oxygen cycle involves the movement of oxygen plants and some prokaryotes between biotic which are living factors and abiotic - this cycle is an essential constituent of all major which are non-living factors. organic compounds present in living organisms - the oxygen cycle maintains the level of oxygen in vatta's amino acids proteins enzymes nucleotides our atmosphere. and nucleic acids. - processes within this cycle are considered either a - the atmosphere contains 78% of nitrogen in source oxygen production or a sink which involves gaseous state yet animals cannot use it directly, they oxygen consumption. can use nitrogen either in inorganic forms as - the largest reservoir of the earth's oxygen is found ammonia nitrites and nitrates or in organic form as in the lithosphere, silicate and oxide minerals of the urea proteins and nucleic acids. crust and metal make up large portions of the lithosphere and contain oxygen. - the atmosphere is made up of roughly 21% oxygen - the hydrosphere which is the water on earth is 33 % oxygen by volume. - the biosphere which is the sum of all ecosystems is 22% oxygen and is found mainly in organic molecules. - oxygen moves from the atmosphere to the ithosphere and the biosphere. Uses of Oxygen ❱ Nitrogen Fixation - it is the conversion of nitrogen into a compound of nitrogen and is carried out by symbiotic bacteria. - phytoplankton and other organisms that carry out - thunderstorm, lightning, and rain helps in transfer of photosynthesis release oxygen into the atmosphere large quantity of nitrogen into soil - in fact, marine plants produce most of the oxygen in our atmosphere. ❱ Nitrogen Assimilation - plants take up nitrogen and synthesize compounds - sunlight produces some oxygen when sunlight from it, other organisms feed on plants to get reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere. nitrogen - decomposition which is the breakdown of once living organisms uses oxygen and releases carbon ❱ Ammonification dioxide. - it involves the decomposition of proteins of dead plants and animals and nitrogenous wastes like urea - microbes use oxygen in order to break down the uric acid, etc. of animals to ammonia in the presence organisms. of a modifying bacteria. - rusting or oxidation involves oxygen in order to create the rust on many metals. ❱ Nitrification - combustion or burning of objects like coal wood or - involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitratethrough fossil fuels also require oxygen and use some of it up nitrites in the presence of nitrifying bacteria. - the oxygen continues to move around the earth ❱ Denitrification from producers to consumers to keep the level in - conversion of nitrate to nitrous oxide and then to balance molecular nitrogen is carried by denitrifying bacteria.  ୨— The Hydrologic Cycle —୧ ❱ EVAPORATION - Liquid water to Gaseous Water - Hydrosphere to Atmosphere ❱ CONDENSATION - Vapor turns back to water - Atmosphere ❱ PRECIPITATION - Water is released from the clouds - All subsystems are involved ❱ TRANSPORTATION - Water is collected by the surface and then moved through phases. - Geosphere to Hydrosphere 🗒 (Transportation instead of collection) ❛ notes by rai alvrz ༉‧₊˚✧ ୨— Notes from the Module —୧  ୨— Random notes during discussion —୧ ❱ WHAT MAKES EARTH SIGNIFICANT TO THE EXISTENCE OF LIFE? - Liquid Water - Available Heat Source - Existence of the atmosphere ❱ SOURCE OF WATER - Outgassing from Volcanic Eruption - Impact of Comets ❱ SOURCE OF ENERGY - The Sun - Geothermal energy source from the Earth's interior Random Fact: El Nino means "little boy" since they have observed it on the month of December. ❱ CLOSED SYSTEM - System in which there's only an exchange of heat and energy and no exchange of matter. ❱ OPEN SYSTEM - Exchange of heat, energy, and matter. ❱ HYDROLOGIC CYCLE - known as the water cycle - exchange of gases and moisture ❱ BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE - pathways by which chemicals or substances move through both biotic and abiotic components of the Earth. ❱ ROLE OF HUMANS - make use of the subsystems - consume the biosphere 🗒 ❛ notes by rai alvrz ༉‧₊˚✧  ୨— Minerals —୧ ❱ MINERALS - must be naturally ocurring A mineral must be : - solid and inorganic naturally occurring - definite chemical composition crystalline solid - each mineral structure is in a crystalline pattern - Minerals found in dietary supplements are human made inorganic compouns that contain elements needed to sustain life. The sources of elements used to make dietary supplements are naturally occurring minerals on the Earth's crust. - Vitamins are organic compounds produced by living organisms, not inorganic compounds. Terms to Remember : ❱ INORGANIC PROCESSES - are found naturally in the ground after the burial of the living materials like salt or calcium carbonate. ❱ CRYSTAL STRUCTURE - the atoms of a mineral must be arranged in a ୨— Physical Properties of Minerals —୧ definite pattern such as quartz. ❱ CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ❱ LUSTER - a mineral is composed of two or more elements. - indicates how light is reflected off a surface of a mineral. Minerals with high luster are very reflective. The Composition of Minerals : - can be described using the following: silky - gypsum - There are approximately 4000 known minerals metallic - galena and pyrite uniquely defined by their chemical composition and pearly - talc internal structure. dull - hematite - More than 90% of minerals on Earth's crust are vitreous or glassy - silicates compounds containing oxygen and silicon (the two - can be metallic or non metallic most abundant elements) like Quartz. - Most minerals are compounds. Metallic Non-Metallic - A few minerals contain single elements and are generally opaque and is vitreous / glassy, called native elements. These are minerals that exhibit a respendent adamantine (brilliant or exists in the purest form. shine that is similar to a diamond like), resinous, polished metal. silky, pearly, dull or earthly, and greasy. - A mineral is composed of an ordered array of atoms chemically bonded to make a particular - there are metallic and non-metallic minerals that crystalline structure. This orderly packing of atoms is can be found in the Philippines. reflected on the regularly shaped objects we call - if the samples look like metal, they are metal. crystals.  Pros and Cons of using Moh's Scale of Hardness PROS - Easy to do the test, can be done anywhere, anytime, as long as the place is not dark. - Highly relevant for field geologists to rough identify minerals using scrath kits. - Handy and can be doe without few kits CONS - The scale is qualitative and not quantitative - Cannot be used to treat accurate hardness of industrial materials. ❱ COLOR AND STREAK - Color is a unique identifying property of certain minerals but not reliable due to impurities within minerals. Color is not a reliable characteristic. - Streak refers to the color of the mineral in powdered form. Useful in distinguishing metallic minerals from non-metallic which have a colorless white streak. - Other minerals have no streak like Calcite. Scratch on surfaces to identify the streak of minerals. ❱ HARDNESS ❱ CRYSTAL FORM / HABIT - refers to the mineral resistance to scratch/abrasion. - refers to the overall shape of crystal - dependent on the chemical composition and the - defines the relative growth of the crystals in 3 crystalline structure of a mineral. dimension which are its length, width, and height. - scratch test is used to determine the hardness of a - common shapes include: mineral, if the mineral leaves a scratch (sa glass), needlelike- acicular then its hardness is > 5.5 based od Moh's Scale. plantlike - dendritic kidney shaped - reniform Common objects used for hardness test bladed, elongated, and tabular in one direction - prismatic Fingernail 2 - 2.5 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE Copper Coin / Wire 3 - 3.5 Nail 5 - 5.5 - describes the orderly geometrical spatial arrangements of atoms in the internal structure of a Glass 5.5 mineral and is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of cleavage of fracture. Steel Knife 6.5 - 7 - Prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform, equant - amorphous refers to minerals that do not have a crystal structure.  - carbonate minerals like calcite, dolomite, azurite, ❱ CLEAVAGE and malachite react with hydrochloric acid. - refers to the mineral's resistance to being broken or Electrical Conductivity split along plane of weakness. - gold, silver, and copper minerals are good conductors of electricity. - It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces. - when minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by the number of cleavage directions and the angle(s) between planes. ❱ FRACTURE - some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and non-planar. - one example is quartz - fractures may be conchoidal, fribrous, hackly, and uneven among others. Fracture is cracked randomly (random and irregular shape). While cleavage breaks at predictable angle (predictable flat side) ❱ SPECIFIC GRAVITY - describes the mineral's density in comparison to the density of a standard like water. - the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water. Mineral Specific Gravity Copper 8.9 ୨— Groupings of Minerals according to their chemical composition —୧ Silver 10.5 ❱ SILICATES Lead 11.3 - the most common rock-forming minerals. It contains Gold 19 silicon (Si) and oxygen (O). ❱ OXIDES - minerals containing Oxygen and anion (O2). ❱ OTHER PROPERTIES ❱ SULFATES Magnetic Property - contain Sulfur and Oxygen anions (SO4) - minerals containing iron like magnetite and hematite are attracted by a magnet ❱ SULFIDES - contain Sulfur anion (S2) Reacts with Acid ❱ CARBONATES - may be divided according to light colored (feldspar, - contain carbonate anion (CO3). quartz, granite), medium-colored (diorite, andesite), dark-colored (gabbro, basalt, mainly pyroxene, ❱ NATIVE ELEMENTS calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar). - form as individual elements. - HOW TO IDENTIFY A MINERAL - - metallic (gold, lead), semi-metals (arsenic, bismuth), nonmentals (sulfur, diamond). ❱ HALIDES - contain halogen elements (Chlorine, Fluorine) Defining features of a crystal: - Crystal Structure - Regular, geometric, smooth faces - Orderly arrangements with repeating structures - Each mineral always forms the same crystal shape - Crystallographic axes - used to determine structure - Six basic crystal shapes The growth of crystals is affected by competition for space. Additional Notes: ❱ MINERALS - are composed of elements or compounds represented by a chemical formula. - are building blocks of rocks ❱ MINERALOGY - study of the chemistry of minerals, crystal structure and their physical and optical properties. ❱ MINERAL COMPOSITION - based on: chemical make up of the parent magma  ୨— Rocks —୧ ❱ MAGMA - is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the - Rocks are building blocks of lithosphere. earth and is generated by partial melting of rocks in - considered a combination of one or more minerals. the Earth's mantle. - are naturally occurring aggregate or combination of ❱ LAVA minerals and mineraloids, such as fossils and glass. - is molten rock material extruded to the surface of - can be composed of a single mineral (example: the earth through a central vent (volcano) or as Quartz - a metamorphic rock composed of Quartz) fissure eruptions. - are recycled which is linked to Earth's subsystems and biogeochemical cycles. Magma is consist of mainly silicon and oxygen (as - can be classified as igneous, sedimentary, and silica SiO2) and lesser amounts of aluminum (Al2), metamorphic rocks. calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe). ❱ GEOSPHERE - consists of rocks and minerals from both the - Ways Magma or Lava may solidify - continents and the oceans. 1. Below the surface : from a slow-cooling magma; ❱ LITHOSPHERE have good crystals (coarse-grained). - from the Greek word "lithos" which means stone. - granite, diorite, and syenite. - composed of crust and the upper mantle 2. On the surface : from fast-cooling lava; no visible crystals (fine-grained). - basalt and andesite 3. On the surface : from consolidation of partcles erupted by explosive volcanic activity; becomes pyroclastic rock like ignimbrite, scoria, and pumice. ୨— Igneous Rocks —୧ Igneous Rocks can be Intrusive or Extrusive (Types of Igneous Rocks) ❱ INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK / PLUTONIC - formed when magma loses its mobility before reaching the surface and crystallizes at depth. - gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of magma from depth to surface causing slow cooling / crystallization. - examples : granite, diorite, gabbro ❱ EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS / VOLCANIC - from solidifies lava or near the surface of the earth. - fast rate of cooling / crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth's surface and underneath. (rhyolite, andesite, basalt) - pyroclastic rocks : fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of eruption. (tuff and pyroclastic) - flow deposits (ignimbrite)  - If magma begins to cool wlowly below the surface but then is uplifted to finish cooling quickly, it will Igneous rocks can be classified by their texture and composition have a combination of large and microscopic crystals, and the rock is said to have a porphyritic texture. ❱ TEXTURE - described as the overall appearance of igneous ❱ APHANITIC rocks based on grain size, grain shape, and grain - fine-grained texture; minerals not visible to the pattern or arrangement of the interlocking crystals. naked eye; relatively fast rates of cooling, prevent formation of large crystals. - a rock's grain give it its texture. - Aphanite : fine grained - provides information about the environment where the rock was formed. - Special Textures - - Kinds of Crystals according to size - ❱ VESICULAR - voids created by rapid cooling causing air bubbles the rate of cooling strongly influences the crystal to be trapped inside. size - slow cooling results to formation of large crystals while fast cooling results to formation of - the drop pressure that a magma experiences as it the small crystals. flows from underground to the Earth's surface allows water and gases in the lava to form bubbles. If the ❱ COARSE-GRAINED bubbles do not get large enough to pop, they are - grains (crystals) can be seen with bare eyes. frozen in the lava as VESICLES. ❱ MEDIUM-GRAINED ❱ GLASSY OR VITREOUS TEXTURE - grains can only be seeen through microscope - occur during some volcanic eruptions when the lava is cooled so rapidly that crystallization cannot occur. ❱ FINE-GRAINED The result is a natural amorphous glass with few or - grains can only be seeen through microscope no crystals. (e.g. obsidian and pumice.) - Kinds of Texture - ❱ PYROCLASTIC ❱ PHANERITIC - fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or - a texture which results to the slow cooling and explosive type of eruption. forms large interlocking crystals. - when very hot ash falls into the ground, it welds into - Phanerite : from the Greek word meaning visible a rock which is very light-weight, being made with of (coarse-grained) a volcanic "spun glass". - Pegmatite : contains unusually large mineral grains - pyroclastic : means fire broken or fire fragments. (2 cm or larger) - new pyroclastic material everytime volcano erupts. - Phenocrysts : large isolated grains - Pyroclastic rocks is a general term used for all rocks that form during volcanic eruptions. ❱ PORPHYRITIC TEXTURE - formed through two stages of crystallization where in magma partly cooled below the surface providing time for large crystals to grow before extruded to the surface. - Porphyry : 50% or more of the rock is coarse mineral grains scattered through a mixture of fine mineral grains.  ❱ ULTRAMAFIC - < 45 % silica, generally very dark-colored. However, there are some rocks that do not follow the color index. Examples are : - Obsidian : a volcanic glass which erupts as a lava flow, felsic in composition. - Dunite : ultramafic but greenish in color (green mineral, olivine). ୨— Sedimentary Rocks —୧ - made up of sediments which resulted from uplifting and weathering and are transported and deposited in ❱ COLOR INDEX different areas. - can be used to identify the composition of most - common features of sedimentary rocks include igneous rocks. fossil assemblages and stratification. ❱ FELSIC ❱ DEPOSITION - is indicated in light colors (whote, light gray, tan, - process in which sedeimentary rocks accumulate and pink) colored rocks, and rich in silica. on Earth's surface. ❱ MAFIC ❱ LITHIFICATION - are dark colored (black and brown) rocks, poor in - process by which sediments are transformed into silica but rich in iron and magnesium. sedimentary rock. IR COMPOSITION BASED ON PRESENCE OF ❱ SEDIMENTS LIGHT AND DARK COLORED MINERALS - from the Latin word "sedentarius" meaning "sitting". ❱ FELSIC - granitic: > 65% silica, generally light-colored Additional Notes: ❱ INTERMEDIATE ANDESITIC _____________________________________ - 55-65 % silica, is generally medium colored _____________________________________ (medium gray). _____________________________________ _____________________________________ ❱ MAFIC ________________________________ - basaltic : 45 - 55 % silica, usually dark colored.  TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS BASED ON THEIR SOURCES ❱ DETRIMENTAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - come from weathered rocks such as igneous rocks - basis for groupings is their particle size. - examples : breccia, conglomerate, sandstone ❱ CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - come from soluble materials produces largely by chemical weathering. - basis for groupings is on their chemical composition - examples : calcite, gypsum, quartz, halite STAGES IN COAL FORMATION ❱ PEAT - is a fibrous, soft, spongy substance in which plant remains are easilty recognizeable. It contains a large amount of water and must be dry before use. ❱ LIGNITE - is formed when peat is subjected to increased vertical pressure from accumulating sediments. It crumbles with no trouble and should not be shipped or handles before use. ❱ BITUMINOUS COAL - greatly used in industry as a source of heat energy. ❱ ANTHRACITE - is also known as "hard coal" because it id hard and has a high lustre.  ୨— Metamorphic Rocks —୧ - The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of the intruding magma and the amount - came from pre-existing rocks called parent rock of water in the intruded rocks and the reactive fluids (either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphose rock coming from the magma. - creates non-foliated called the protolith). metamorphic rocks - example: hornfels - parent rock undergo changes in mineralogy texture (like grain size) and chemical composition by the ❱ REGIONAL METAMORPHISM action of heat, pressure (stress), and chemically - pressure as main factor : active fluids (water, CO2, other volatile materials). - occurs in areas that have undergone considerable - have distinct foliation (due to pressure), and amount of mechanical deformation and chemical crystalline (heat) recrystallization during orogenic event which are commonly associated with mountain belts - occurs in ❱ METAMORPHISM a regional/large scale. - process of transformation of parent rock. - creates foliated metamorphic rocks (examples: ❱ HEAT schist, gneiss) - is the most important agent of metamorphism. - non-foliated rocks like marble also form through ❱ FOLIATION regional metamorphism, where pressure is not - layered appearance intense, far from the main geologic event. - planar arrangement of structural or textural features in any rock type, but particularly that resulting from the alignment of constituent mineral grains of a metamorphic rock of the regional variety along straight or wavy planes. KINDS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS ❱ FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS - as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure. ❱ NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS - as hornfels, marble, quartzite, and novaculite do not have a layered or banded appearance KINDS OF METAMORPHISM ❱ CONTACT METAMORPHISM - heat and reactive fluids as main factors : - occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in contact with magma which is the source of heat and magmatic fluids where metamorphic alterations and transformations occur around the contact/ metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and the rock layers.  IMPORTANCE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS - source of building materials; slate and marble are commonly used as finishing stone in buildings. - low-grade metamorphism of ultramafic igneous rocks (dark igneous rocks composed mostly of magnesium and iron) produces serpentine, a group of sheet-silicate minerals (crystolite, lizardite, antigorite) that are the principal sources of ASBESTOS. Additional Notes : ୨— The Rock Cycle —୧ MOH’S SCALE OF HARDNESS - Week 1 and 2 end - notes by : rai alvrz  IMPORTANT Minerals To Society || Ore Minerals ProcesseS ❱ QUARTZ ୨— Important Minerals to Society —୧ - the second most abundant mineral in the earth’s ❱ ZINC continental crust, after feldspar (first). - maintains a healthy immune system ❱ CALCITE - prevent sunburn and coating for steel - used in World War II for gun sights, specifically in ❱ GOLD bomb sights and anti-aircraft weaponry. experiments - metallic mineral that is used as plating materials for have been conducted to use this for cloak invisibility peacemakers, as treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, and has a wide range of applications like soil other autoimmune disorders and cancer patients. remedication, stabilization, and concrete repair. - firefighters use this in their face shiels, also used in ❱ CLAY medical and dental equipment, and jewelry. - without this mineral, soil would be poor and ❱ POTASH incapable of holding nutrient elements necessary for - used as a fertilizer to encourage water retention in plant growth (potassium, nitrogen, and plants, increase crop yields, improve taste and help phosphorous). plants resist diseases. - utilized to create cement and concrete which is - carbonate of potassium that is used in fertilizers, used to build roads, buildings, housing foundations, medicines, and the chemical industry. and even driveways. ❱ PHOSPHATES ❱ NICKEL - use to produce fertilizers and also used in animal - used to manufacture stainless steel. feed supplements, food preservatives, anti-corrosion ❱ SILVER agents, cosmetics, fungicides, ceramics, water - used as electrical conductors and photography treatment, an metallurgy. - used to produce phosphoric acid for fertilizers and ❱ ALUMINUM feed additives for livestocks. - mineral used in insulation, food processing, domestic utensils. ❱ BAUXITE - the world’s main source of aluminum and gallium ❱ BORAX - used in fiberglass, high temperature glass, ❱ TALC ceramics, and fertilizers. - the softest mineral on earth that is used in pulp, paper, board industry, talcum products, and ❱ TITANIUM ingredients in a range of personal care products. - used in many high strength, low weight metal alloys - used in paper manufacture, pain manufacture, and ❱ RARE EARTH ELEMTS in plastics and the cosmetics industry. - used in petroleum refining, computers, televisions, ❱ COPPER industry, metallurgical applications, ceramics, and - found in pennies, MRI scanners and the statue of lighting, also used in appliances and smartphones. liberty’s skin, this metal is also needed for firm skin, ❱ IRON cartilage, and ligaments; it has been used to disinfect - used in steel making procedure wounds and treat infections. - used for electrical conductors, motors, appliances, ❱ BENTONITE piping, and in metal alloys. - is important in well drilling. ❱ FLUORITE - is important in making steel  ୨— Importance of Minerals in Various Fields—୧ ❱ BARITE ❱ MEDICINE - mineral that is used in oil drilling, filler in paint, glass - minerals and metals are important elements and and toothpaste. components in making advancements in today;s ❱ CHALCOPYRITE biomedical enterprise. - is used to make electrical wiring, motors, appliances, piping and is a dietary supplement to be in metal alloys. Calcium used when the amount of calcium carbonate in the diet is not enough. ❱ LIMESTONE (CaCOs) Heartburn, acid indigestion and - is used as building stone, for kitchen surfaces, an upset stomach can be relieved sculpture and cement. using calcium carbonate. ❱ DIAMOND used in MRI scanners, kills - the hardest metal and is used in cutting glass and Copper bacteria, viruses, and fungi on contact thus, hospitals utilize it for drilling rocks, and is also considered as the most critical surfaces. expensive gemstone. - is useful in jewelries, industry, and cosmetics. is an active ingredient in some - is a hardest well-known gem that is a solid mineral topical antibiotics, wound form of pure carbon. Silver dressings, medical devices, and prevents bacterial growth. It also ❱ QUARTZ promotes healing. - a mineral that makes up window glasses ❱ AGRICULTURE ❱ ZEOLITE - a lot of minerals are commonly utilized as fertilizers - mineral used in water purification process to help crops yield better. ❱ SAND is an important in agriculture - has domestic and industrial application. Clay Mineral because it enriches the soil by ❱ HALITE (ROCK SALT) holding nutrient elements which are necessary for plant growth. - is a type of salt with the mineral form of sodium chloride (NaCI). ❱ COSMETIC INDUSTRIES ❱ GYPSUM - is primarily used in making wallboard and an is the softest mineral, and ingredient in cement. Talc adsorbs microorganisms and other proteins. ❱ BORAX Bentonite adsorbs heavy metal. - (also known as sodium borate) is used to make fiberglass, high temperature glass, cleaning agents, provides luster required for a ceramics, wood preservatives, corrosion inhibitors Steatite shiny skin. and fertilizers. ❱ METAL-EQUIPMENT INDUSTRIES ❱ CORUNDUM - used metals to make many automobile devices and - is most highly desired jewelry stone. machineries that helped everyone in the society. ❱ RUBY AND SAPPHIRE - includes copper, gold, zinc, nickel, silver, aluminum, - second hardest precious stone, a hardness of 9.0. and even titanium. ❱ GLASS-MAKING INDUSTRIES ୨— Mining—୧ - still under metal-equipment industries - minerals are the raw materials to be used like ❱ SURFACE MINING antimony, feldspar, lead, lithium, quartz, silica, - minerals are extracted near earth’s surface calcite, gypsum, and more. - includes 6 processes : is primarily composed of quartz strip mining hydraulic mining Sand or silica is the main ingredient of glass. placer mining dredging mountain top open pit. is needed to harden the cement Gypsum and stay intact with pressure. Also, it is an important ❱ UNDERGROUND MINING alternative in concrete design. - ores are taken out from the ground by digging. - includes 5 processes : is used in electrical installations Copper at home. slope mining shaft ❱ NUCLEAR POWER hard - rock bore-hole - radioactive minerals are used. drift minig processes ❱ HOME CONSTRUCTION ❱ METALLURGY - native minerals are used. - a process used to extract metals in their pure form. ❱ JEWELRY - a substance called FLUX is added to remove the - in the past was made of feathers, bones, shells, gangue (impurities). and Gems and was worn as amulets to protect - classifications under the metallurgical process : oneself from failures and diseases. Crushing Is the crushing and grinding of ores Ruby (Corundum) some of the traditional lists and into a fine powder (pulverization) in Sapphire and of gemstones that were grinding of a crusher ot ball mill. Emerald (Beryl) considered precious. ores and Diamond Ore Is the process of removing prized in the jewelry Dressing impurities from ore. Gems business because of their beauty and durability. Ores are poured over a sloping, vibrating corrugated table with Clasps held clothing together grooves of which a jet water flowed Hydrolytic over the surface which allows method denser particles to settle in the ୨— Important Facts —୧ grooves and wash away the - Physicians are opposing the mining of uranium impurities. because it causes a spectrum of adverse health effects. The crushed ore is placed on a - In the Middle East, eye kohl, an ancient eye Magnetic convey or belt with two wheels (one Separation of the wheels is magnetic, attracts cosmetic has been used by girls for eye makeup and magnetic particles while those non eye treatments. magnetic particles just falls apart). - The earliest finding of jewelry was dated around 25,000 years ago in a cave in Monaco. The crushed ore are placed in a Froth large tank that contains oil and Floatation water, then a current of compressed air will pass through to wet the ore and separate impurities  - ore minerals like galena, bauxite, hematite, and in the form of froth, because the ore is lighter it floats and left the rutile are carefully fragmented and chemically impurities behind. possessed to yield useful metals. - extracted depending on economic value The last method in which a ❱ ORE GENESIS concentrated ore is heated in the - the process by which a deposit of ore is created and has Roasting presence of oxygen (roasting), and three major types : internal processes, hydrothermal and is usually applies to sulfide ores. Calcination For ores containing carbonate or processes, and surficial processes. hydrated oxides, heating is done in ❱ INTERNAL PROCESS the absence of air to melt the ores, - a process of ore genesis that includes geologic activity this process known as calcination. such as when volcanoes bring ore from deep in the planet to the surface. Utilization follows after all of these. ❱ SMELTING - method of metal extraction that uses heat to separate the ❱ ELECTROLYSIS metal from the rest of the ore and requires another - uses electricity and acid to separate metal from ore chemical to separate metal from its ore. ❱ MINERAL OCCURRENCE ❱ BIOMINING - is a concentration of a mineral that is considered - special bacteria, prokaryotes, and fungi are used to valuable by someone somewhere, or that is of mine valuable metals from ore minerals without scientific or technical interest. drilling and blasting of rocks. ❱ GEORGIUS AGRICOLA - also known as Gregor Bauer ୨— Summary —୧ - is the father of mineralogy - His work paved the way for further systematic study of ❱ MINERALS the Earth and of its rocks, minerals, and fossils. He made - are ore, solid, naturally formed by inorganic fundamental contributions to mining geology and process, has specific chemical composition and metallurgy, mineralogy, structural geology, and crystalline structure. paleontology. - classified as : ❱ GALENA Ore minerals - it is used in automotive batteries, paint, and additives in - are the sources of our most important metals. gasoline. - Bauxite, rutile, hematite, chalcopyrite ❱ ALUMINUM Industrial minerals - extracted from bauxite ore - defined as rocks or resources from the Earth ❱ COPPER that are utilized because of their physical and - extracted from chalcopyrite ore chemical characteristics. - used in aluminum foil & medicine containers - minerals that offer a wide array of domestic ❱ TITANIUM and industrial applications like clays, potash, - extracted from rutile ore gypsum, calcium carbonate, talc, and halite. - strongest metal that is used in aircraft, armor plating, Gems naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles. - are unearthed and valued for their sparkle, beauty and its contribution to jewelry, 1.4% — Philippine non-metallic mines are cosmetics and medicine. covered by mining permits (2016). Philippines — is the world’s second-largest - Diamond, ruby and sapphire (corundum), producer of nickel ore. emerald / aquamarine / kunzite (beryl). Northern Central and Southern part of Mindanao — are rich in chromium, copper, ❱ ORE and gold deposits. - a nonrenewable resource, a naturally occurring material that can be profitably mined.  5 MINING SITES IN THE PHILIPPINES (REGION 5) — It can be washed out and processed to get the pure THAT USE TUNNELING, PANNING / GOLD WASHING, metal and leave the tailings. FLUSHING OR COMBINATION OF THESE TO INCREASE YIELD : TYPES OF LEACHING ❱ BUKIDNON — Gango, Libona 1. cyanide leaching - gold ores - practiced tunneling, reason : there is no presence of 2. ammonia leaching - crushed ores nearby river systems. 3. alkali leaching - bauxite ore - the area's geography ranges from flat to very steep hills. 4. acid leaching - sulfide ore - 57% used leaves (tuog), soap, water, and vinegar as their indigenous purification method. - also use water and bilingan or panning as a strainer to remove impurities. ❱ Republic Act (R.A.) No. 7942 — Philippine Mining Act of 1995 ❱ CAGAYAN DE ORO CITY - given benefit to both government and contractor. — Barangay Tumpagon and Barangay Pigsag-an - prioritize safety and health for everyone for the success - gold panning methods because of nearby river systems. of the mining industries. - ground materials pollute the river systems especially the - mining knowhow and safety habits have been advanced Iponan river with high loads of sediments that threaten by innovative companies and were encouraged by aquatic life because of siltation – which lessen sunlight government legislation dispersion, water temperature, and water habitat productivity. ❱ MISAMIS ORIENTAL — Nangcaon, Opol - gold panning methods because of nearby river systems ❱ OLD THERMOMETER - used mercury (it is quite accurate compared to digital) ❱ ILIGAN CITY — Rogongon - Rogongon veteran gold miners and local folks use gold ❱ AGGREGATE panning to separate gold from other materials. - rock or minerals used as filler in cement, asphalt, or plaster and generally used to describe non-metallic deposits — examples are limestones “lower class ୨— METHODS —୧ minerals” ❱ TUNNELING METHOD ❱ ALLOY - underground excavations are made to get mineral ores. - substance having metallic properties and composed of 2 or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal ❱ PANNING METHOD - method of separating gold from soil or gravels by ❱ METAL washing in a pan with water. - class of chemical elements such as iron, gold, and aluminum and a characteristic of luster, good conductors ❱ FLUSHING METHOD of heat an