Death of John: A History of the English Monarchy PDF

The Minority of Henry III (1216-1232): October 1216-April 1217 Introduction Henry III became King of England at nine years old in October 1216, after the death of his father, King John. He was considered a minor until he turned 21, in 1228. The situation was highly precarious because England was in...

The Minority of Henry III (1216-1232): October 1216-April 1217 Introduction Henry III became King of England at nine years old in October 1216, after the death of his father, King John. He was considered a minor until he turned 21, in 1228. The situation was highly precarious because England was in the middle of the First Barons' War. Child monarchs were considered vulnerable to both internal rebellion and foreign invasion, there had been no child ruler since before 1066. Prince Louis of France was in England leading the rebels and a France army he brought with him. He was aged 29 and was invited by the rebellious English barons to take the throne of England. His experience made him a strong military leader, and he had already gained significant control over parts of England by the time Henry ascended. King John's Actions to Secure Henry’s Rule at Newark Before his death, King John took several urgent steps to secure his son Henry’s position:  John wrote to Pope Honorius III (who had recently succeeded Innocent III) to request assistance and place England under papal protection. By doing so, he aimed to secure powerful support from the Church, which could discourage both domestic rebellion and foreign intervention.  John also appealed directly to Cardinal Guala, the Papal Legate in England, reminding him of the Pope’s overlordship and requesting his protection for Henry against the rebels.  John conferred guardianship of Henry and England to William Marshall. Henry was with Peter des Roches, the Bishop of Winchester his tutor.  On the final day of his life (18 October), he wrote three letters. Firstly, he made sure Hubert de Burgh, the justiciar so that he would have enough money to continue his defence of Dover Castle. In a another letter patent, John gave Nicola de Haye and Philip Mark custody of Lincolnshire for their lives. Nicola, it seems certain, was the active partner here, after her successful defence of the castle at Lincoln that summer. The final letter patent issued on 18 October gave safe conduct to all who would reconcile themselves to the new King though Savaric de Mauleon. John’s Will John also had a will written in which he named a group of 13 executors to carry out his wish that Henry succeed him as the next King. The shortness of John’s will likely reflects the urgency of his final days; he had limited time and was primarily focused on securing Henry’s succession amidst a chaotic and uncertain political landscape. He had carefully selecting individuals who could provide both spiritual legitimacy and practical support for Henry’s rule:  Churchmen o Cardinal Guala: As the Pope's representative in England, he was crucial for maintaining church support. Guala’s authority as Papal Legate (granted the power to act on behalf of the Pope) meant he could rally the church behind Henry and secure religious legitimacy for his rule. o Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester: A key administrator (a former justiciar) and military strategist for King John, Peter des Roches had experience raising funds and organizing royal defences. His support was essential for managing royal finances and coordinating resistance against the rebels. He was also loyal and Henry’s tutor. o Bishop of Chichester: Involved in negotiating truces and managing diplomatic relations, his presence as an executor helped to mediate between royalists and rebels, potentially securing temporary peace. He was close to Langton, having been tutored by him, and also had not come out in support of either side. o Bishop of Worcester: As a senior churchman, he helped ensure that the church's influence in central England remained loyal to Henry, providing both spiritual and political support. Also this was to be the temporary location of John’s burial. o Brother Aymar, Master of the Knights Templar in England: The Knights Templar (a crusading order) had vast estates, resources, and knights across England. Their support bolstered Henry’s military capabilities, particularly in areas where the royalists needed additional manpower and fortifications.  Others: o William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke: A respected knight and statesman, Marshall held extensive lands in South Wales and Ireland and was regarded as the “greatest knight” of his era. His reputation and military resources were vital in commanding respect and loyalty from other barons. o Ranulf, Earl of Chester: Controlled lands in the north of England, a region with substantial rebel support. His involvement helped to maintain royal influence in an otherwise hostile area. o Earl Ferrers: Owned lands in the Midlands and was Lord of the Peak o William Brewer: Held lands across multiple counties in England, including the Midlands. As a sheriff in 11 counties, his local influence and administrative experience were crucial in maintaining law and order. o Walter de Lacy and John of Monmouth: These barons controlled lands on the Welsh borders (the Marches) and in Wales itself. Their territories were strategically important for preventing Welsh uprisings and maintaining control  over the western regions. Walter de Lacy had control of the strong Ludlow Castle. o Mercenary Captains – Falkes de Breauté and Savari de Mauléon: Commanded mercenary forces and controlled key castles and estates. Falkes de Breauté, for example, held land in the Midlands and could deploy troops to split rebel forces between northern and southern England. Strength of each side  Prince Louis’s & the Rebels: o London: The capital city and seat of government; controlling London provided Louis with significant political legitimacy and access to resources and logistics. He had control of most of the South East. o Southampton and Portchester: Key ports that allowed Louis to maintain supply lines with France, bringing in soldiers and materials for his campaign in England. These ports enabled him to maintain an influx of fresh troops and provisions, a critical advantage for sustaining his efforts. o Winchester and Guilford: Important royal castles in the southeast, their loss weakened Henry’s control over the region and exposed other loyalist territories to potential attack. o Noble Support: The Earl of Salisbury is fighting for the rebels and he is the half brother of John. William Marshal’s eldest son William Marshal is also fighting for the rebels. Out of 97 barons, only 36 supported Henry. Of the 27 earls (the most powerful barons), only eight remained loyal to the young king, highlighting the precarious nature of his support base. o Northern Support: Louis had significant backing from northern barons, which allowed him to challenge royalist positions in both the north and south, creating a two-front conflict for Henry’s supporters. There was little support in the East or North. o Eustace the monk: A pirate called Eustace the monk led a fleet of ships raiding English shipping in the channel o Scotland and Wales: Prince Llewelyn of North Wales & King Alexander of Scotland both supported Louis  Royalist Support: o Dover Castle: A critical defensive site due to its location by the English Channel. Hubert de Burgh’s leadership ensured the castle held against a sustained siege by Louis, preventing the rebels from gaining a crucial entry point into England. o Lincoln Castle: Commanded by Nicola de la Haye, Lincoln Castle’s defense was essential in maintaining a strong royalist presence in central England. Its fall to Louis would have split royalist forces and given the rebels strategic depth across the Midlands. o Cinque Ports: A confederation of five ports on the southeastern coast of England (Hastings, New Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich), which were granted special privileges in return for providing ships and men for the defense of the realm. Their loyalty was crucial in countering Louis’s naval presence in the English Channel and maintaining supply lines from France. King John's Burial King John initially wanted to be buried at Beaulieu Abbey in Hampshire, a Cistercian monastery he had supported during his reign. The Cistercians were a powerful religious order, and John believed that being buried there would help ensure prayers for his soul and secure his passage to heaven. But John’s death occurred at Newark during a time of intense conflict. It was deemed too dangerous to transport his body to Beaulieu Abbey, as the route passed through rebel-held territory. Therefore, he was instead buried at Worcester Cathedral, a more secure location under royalist control. John was buried at Worcester Cathedral, a choice that carried significant religious and political symbolism. He specifically chose this site for its connection to St. Wulfstan, an Anglo-Saxon saint who was highly revered in England. By being buried near such a figure, John aimed to secure spiritual legitimacy and favour for his soul, aligning himself with a respected religious tradition. Coronation of Henry III, 1216 Henry III was crowned King of England on October 28, 1216, at the age of nine. The coronation was hastily organized to secure his position on the throne following the death of his father, King John, and to prevent Prince Louis of France from solidifying his claim to the English crown. The decision for this rapid coronation was driven primarily by Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the Papal Legate, who aimed to ensure that Henry's legitimacy was established before Louis could gain more support. Guala advocated for an immediate coronation to prevent Louis from being crowned, which could have bolstered his legitimacy and increased his support among the English barons. Gloucester was chosen as the site for Henry's coronation over other possible locations like Worcester. It was a fortified city with a strong castle, providing a secure location against potential attacks from Louis' forces or other rebellious factions. Gloucester was more centrally located and accessible to Henry’s supporters, allowing loyal barons to gather quickly. The choice of Gloucester over Worcester also reflected a desire to consolidate control over the West Country, an area where royalist support was strong. The coronation at Gloucester Cathedral broke with tradition, as royal coronations were typically held at Westminster Abbey and conducted by the Archbishop of Canterbury. However, several factors prevented this from happening:  Westminster Abbey was within London, which was under the control of the forces loyal to Prince Louis and the rebel barons, making it too dangerous and politically sensitive.  Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, could not officiate the ceremony. Langton had been summoned to Rome by Pope Honorius III (who succeeded Pope Innocent III) to explain his actions during King John's reign, particularly his failure to excommunicate the rebels swiftly and his refusal to hand over Rochester Castle to John when ordered. The Pope distrusted Langton’s loyalties and saw his actions as undermining papal authority. As a result, Langton was effectively in exile from England and unable to perform his duties.  The Archbishop of York was also absent from England at the time, leaving the task of crowning Henry to Cardinal Guala Bicchieri and other bishops, including Peter des Roches, the Bishop of Winchester.  Due to the urgency of the situation, the coronation was held on a Friday instead of the traditional Sunday, highlighting the need to establish Henry’s authority as quickly as possible.  Henry was crowned with a makeshift circlet or coronet, rather than the official royal crown, which had been "lost in the wash" — likely lost during King John’s military manoeuvres and retreat. This improvisation further underscored the hastiness and improvised nature of the ceremony. Leadership Struggles Following the coronation, a Great Council was held at Gloucester Castle to discuss immediate steps to secure Henry's reign amidst the ongoing conflict with Louis and the rebels. William Marshal, an experienced knight and nobleman in his 70s or 80s, was proposed as the man best able to govern on behalf of the young king. However, he initially refused the role for several reasons:  Personal Reasons: Marshal cited his advanced age and declining health, arguing that he might not be physically capable of handling the responsibilities of regency.  Political Calculations: His refusal was also a strategic decision. Marshal wanted to avoid alienating other powerful nobles, particularly Ranulf, Earl of Chester. Ranulf was a prominent figure with a legitimate claim to influence in the new regime, but he was delayed in arriving at the coronation due to his journey from the north.  Delicate Negotiation: By not immediately accepting the regency, Marshal allowed space for Ranulf to voice his support. When Ranulf arrived at the Great Council, he endorsed Marshal for the position. This manoeuvring allowed Marshal to accept the role without appearing to usurp authority or dismiss Ranulf’s influence, securing broader support among the barons.  Final Persuasion: Cardinal Guala ultimately convinced Marshal to accept the regency by offering him absolution for his sins — a powerful motivator for Marshal, who had fought in numerous battles throughout his life and likely sought spiritual redemption. William Marshal begins to take steps to win support: William Marshal wrote to 18 of the leading rebels offering to meet them and hear their grievances. He gave them guarantees of safe passage. Goodrich Castle, a critical royal stronghold near the Welsh borders, was attacked by rebels shortly after Henry's coronation. This assault demonstrated the fragile nature of Henry’s position and underscored the need for urgent measures to consolidate power and secure the loyalty of key territories. It was less than 20 miles away from Gloucester. Great Council at Bristol The next significant Great Council was convened in Bristol in November 1216, a few weeks after Henry’s coronation. This was the idea of Cardinal Guala and was attended by 9/97 barons and 11/17 bishops. The Magna Carta was reissued in November 1216 with substantial modifications, reflecting the new political realities and the need to stabilize the kingdom:  19 Clauses Removed: This version of Magna Carta was significantly altered from the 1215 edition signed by King John: o Removal of the Security Clause: The clause establishing a council of 25 barons to oversee the king’s adherence to Magna Carta was eliminated. This change was made to prevent any formal checks on royal power that could challenge Henry’s authority during his minority. o Omission of Inquiries into the Sheriffs' Abuses: Provisions for investigating abuses by King John's sheriffs were removed to avoid reopening grievances that could destabilize Henry's reign and to maintain the loyalty of officials who might otherwise face repercussions.  o Removal of Limitations on Scutage and Aid: Clauses imposing limits on scutage (a tax in lieu of military service) and aid (another form of tax) were omitted, allowing the crown greater flexibility to raise funds necessary for defense and governance. o Elimination of Controversial Clauses: Other clauses that could potentially restrict royal authority or impose financial burdens on the crown were also removed to enable the young king’s government to operate effectively. The revised Magna Carta aimed to balance appeasing the barons with retaining sufficient royal authority to address immediate threats defeat the rebels. Cardinal Guala and William Marshal sought to win back those who had opposed John by demonstrating a willingness to adhere to some principles of Magna Carta while removing those clauses that could weaken the crown's ability to rule. The reissuance was also intended to undermine the support for Prince Louis by addressing some of the grievances that had fueled the rebellion against John, thus isolating Louis and his followers. Securing Henry’s Position Cardinal Guala excommunicated the rebels and declared the conflict a crusade, rallying religious support for Henry by framing the struggle as a holy war against enemies of the church. Henry took a crusader oath shortly after his coronation, aligning his reign with the church and gaining spiritual legitimacy. Challenges Faced by William Marshal After King John's death, many English barons remained discontented due to John's previous unpopular rule and the ongoing civil war. They saw an opportunity in supporting Louis, who promised them greater autonomy and concessions. Several critical castles fell to Louis and the rebels in the period leading up to December 1216. Also by December 1216, the royal treasury was nearly depleted. This scarcity of funds presented several problems for William Marshal. Marshal relied heavily on paid soldiers, including Flemish and Poitevin mercenaries, who were crucial to his military efforts but required significant funds to maintain. Without adequate funds, Marshal risked desertions or a collapse in military capability, which would leave the young King Henry III defenceless against Louis’s forces. Negotiating a Truce (December 1216 - April 1217): To buy time and alleviate immediate pressure, William Marshal negotiated a truce with Louis. The truce was set to last until April 1217. As part of the truce agreement, Marshal was forced to surrender several royal castles to Louis to secure the ceasefire. These included:  Hertford Castle: A vital stronghold near London.  Berkhamsted Castle: Another key location controlling important routes. These concessions were significant, but Marshal saw no other choice due to the dire financial and military situation. Louis aimed to use the truce period to return to France and gather additional mercenary forces, expecting to resume military actions in April 1217. As Louis marched his forces south to sail to France, his plans were disrupted:  Attacks by Wilkin of the Weald: A local leader in Kent, Wilkin began guerilla attacks against Louis’s forces, violating the truce terms and causing delays.  Naval Blockade by Marshal’s Ships: Ships from the Cinque Ports, under Marshal’s orders, blocked or slowed down Louis’s transport ships, preventing him from leaving England as planned. The delay forced Louis to spend more time and resources in England than intended, hampering his efforts to regroup in France. This disruption weakened his position and morale and created an impression of disorganization and vulnerability. During this truce Marshal made efforts to win over former rebels. He offered pardons, land, and other incentives, presenting himself as a stabilizing force who could bring peace and prosperity. These were successful getting his own son, William Marshal Junior to join the royalists, bringing with him his own followers and knights. Earl of Salisbury (William Longespée), King John's half-brother, who switched sides, bringing substantial forces, including many experienced knights. These defections weakened Louis’s coalition, added significant military strength to the royalist side, and boosted morale. Marshal’s diplomatic success was key in re-establishing the legitimacy of Henry’s reign. Marshal used the truce period to recapture important fortifications: Rochester, Southampton, and Winchester. These castles surrendered to the royalists, significantly enhancing their strategic position and demonstrating Marshal's effective use of diplomacy and force. By the end of the truce period in April 1217, the royalists were in a much stronger position.