Normal Physiology Textbook PDF

[E903a73] N79 TEXTBOOK **FOR** STUDENTS\' INDEPENDENT **WORK** **《GEOTAR-Media》** **PUBLISHING GROUP** **CONTENTS** **Foreword** 9 **Abbreviations** 10 **Chapter 1. Introduction to physiology.General** **functional characteristics of the human body** \....11 1.2. Methodological principle...

[E903a73] N79 TEXTBOOK **FOR** STUDENTS\' INDEPENDENT **WORK** **《GEOTAR-Media》** **PUBLISHING GROUP** **CONTENTS** **Foreword** 9 **Abbreviations** 10 **Chapter 1. Introduction to physiology.General** **functional characteristics of the human body** \....11 1.2. Methodological principles in physiology 12 1.3.Physiological function. 12 1.4.Cells and their functions 13 1.5.Characteristics of body tissues 17 1.6.General characteristics of organs 19 1.7.Whole organism 19 Profile materials. 21 Control questions 22 Situational tasks. 22 Chapter 2.General physiology of excitable tissues 23 2.1.Concept of irritability and excitability 23 Irritability, stimulation, and stimuli. 23 2.2.Resting membrane potential. 23 2.3. Mechanismns of resting membrane potential formation. 26 2.5.Action potential. 28 2.6.Basic laws of excitation of cells and tissues 30 Profile materials. 34 Control questions 35 Situational tasks. 35 Chapter 3. General physiology of the nervous system.Neurons and gliocytes. 36 3.2.Parts of the nervous system. 36 3.4.General characteristics of neurons and gliocytes. 37 Neuron as a functional unit of the nervous system. 37 3.5.Functions of sensory receptors 38 Receptors as sensory transducers 38 Properties of receptors and regulation of their function. 39 3.6.Synapse. 40 Classification of synapses. 40 Formation of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP). 42 3.7.Appearance of excitation in the neuron. 46 3.8. Excitation conduction in nerve fibers 46 3.9.Propagation of excitation along the nerve fiber. 46 3.10.Trophic function of neuron. 47 3.11.Axon regeneration 48 3.12.Functional role of neuroglia 48 Profile materials. 49 Control questions 49 Situational tasks. 49 Chapter 4. Reflex activity of the nervous system. Nerve centers, their interaction. 50 4.1. Reflex principle of the nervous system. 50 4.2.Neural circuits. 52 Excitatory neural circuits 52 4.3.Nerve centers\.... 54 Properties of nerve centers. 54 Main forms of interaction of nerve centers. 56 Types of functional systems. 57 Profile materials. 58 Control questions 58 Situational tasks. 58 Chapter 5. Central nervous system physiology 59 5.1.The spinal cord. 59 5.2.Brainstem. 60 5.3.Midbrain. 65 5.4.Cerebellum functions. 67 5.5.Limbic system 67 5.6.Basal ganglia.. 68 5.7.Cerebral cortex 69 Localization of cerebral cortex functions. 69 Self-control behavior. 71 5.8.Blood-brain barrier. 72 Cerebrospinal fluid 73 Profile material 75 Control question 75 Situational tasks. 76 Chapter 6.Basic non-invasive methods of studying the CNS in human. 77 6.1.Computed tomography 77 6.2.Electroencephalography. 78 6.3. Evoked potentials (EP) of the brain 80 6.4.Doppler ultrasound. 81 Control questions 82 Situational tasks. 82 Chapter 7.Endocrine system 83 7.1.General characteristics of the endocrine system. 83 Types of action of hormones. 83 Hormone interaction. 83 7.2.Hormone production 7.3.Transport of hormones by blood 7.4. Physiclogical effects of hormones. Main effects of hormones in whole body. 7.5.Catabolism and exretion of hormones 7.6.Regulation of endacrine function. Liberin and statin transport. Regulation via the posterior pituitary Genetic effects\...\...\...\...\...\....92 Metabolism effects\...\...\...\...\.....92 Eavironmental effects. Biothythmns of endocrine secretion\...\....93 7.7.Assessment of endocrine function\...\.....93 7.8.Pituitary plysiology\...\...\...\...\...93 Metabolic effects of somatotropic hormone\...94 7.9.Thyroid gland\...\...\...\...\...\.....96 Secretion of thyroid hormones\...\...\....97 7.10 Parathyroid glands\...\...\...\...\...99 7.11.Endocrine function of the pancreas\.....99 7.12 Physiology of the adrenal glands of the placenta\...\...\...\...\...\....103 7.14.Pineal gland\...\...\...\...\...\.....103 Control questions\...\...\...\...\.....105 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\...105 Chapter 8,Role of calcium and mechanisms maintaining cakcium homeostasis\...\...\...\...\...\...\...107 8.1. Role of calctum in the human body\.....107 8.2 Calcium requirements\...\...\...\.....107 8.3. Regulation of calcium metabolism in the body\...\...\...\...\...\...\...108 8.4.Calcium deficiency in the body\...\...\...109 8.5.Elevated calcium content in the body\....110 *Profile materials.*\...\...\...\...\...\...110 Control *questions*\...\...\...\...\.....110 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\....111 Chapter 9.Autonomic (vegetative) nervous syetem\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\.....112 9.1. General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system\...\...\...\...\...\....112 9.2.Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system\...\...\...\...\...\....113 9.3.Parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system\...\.....116 9.4. Metasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system\...\.....117 9.6. Interaction between divisions of the autonomic nervous system. 9.7.The highest central regulation of autonomic functions Profile materials. Control questions\...\...\...\...\...\...12 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\.....12 Chapter 10.Physiology of muscles 10.1.General characteristics of muscles 10.2.Skeletal muscle contraction and relaxation\...\...\...\...\...\...\...123 Relaxation of myofibrils. 10.3.Physiological features of skeletal muscles\...\...\...\...\...\...\...\.....12 Types of muscle contraction\...\...\....12 Muscle strength and performance 10.4.Physiological characteristics of smooth muscles\...\...\...\...\.....130 Profile materials\...\...\...\...\...\....13 Control questions\...\...\...\...\.....133 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\....13 Chapter 11.Regulation of movement 11.1.General characteristics of movement\....135 11.2. Somatosensory system\...\...\...\....135 11.6.Role of basal ganglia in movement regulation\...\...\...\...\...\...\....14 11.7.Role of thalamus in movement regulation\...\...\...\...\...\...\....145 11.8.Cortical regulation of movement\.....145 11.9. General scheme of organization of purposeful movements\...\...\...\...1C Profile materials\...\...\...\...\...\....1 Control questions Situational tasks. Chapter 12.Physical and chemical propertics of blood erythrocytic system\...\...\...\...\....149 12.1.Physicochemical properties of blood 12.2.Erythrocytic system Profile materials. Control questions Situational tasks. Chapter 13.Blood leucocyte system. Immune response system. 13.1.Leucocyte system Leukocytes of circulating blood 7.2.Hormone production. 84 7.3.Transport of hormones by blood 84 7.5.Catabolism and excretion of hormones. 89 7.7.Assessment of endocrine function. 93 7.8.Pituitary physiology 93 Metabolic effects of somatotropic hormone..94 7.9.Thyroid gland.. 96 Secretion of thyroid hormones 97 7.10.Parathyroid glands 99 7.11.Endocrine function of the pancreas. 99 7.14.Pineal gland. 103 7.15.Thymus. 104 Profile material 104 Control questions 105 Situational tasks. 105 8.1.Role of calcium in the human body 107 8.2.Calcium requirements\...\.... 107 8.4.Calcium deficiency in the body. 109 8.5.Elevated calcium content in the body\...110 Profile materials. 110 Control questions 110 Situational tasks...111 Chapter 9.Autonomic (vegetative) nervous system. 112 9.3.Parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system\...\...\...116 9.4.Metasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system\...\...\... 117 9.5.Reflexes of the autonomic nervous system\...118 Afferent pathways\...\...\...\...\...\...\....118 9.6. Interaction between divisions of the autonomic nervous system. 9.7.The highest central regulation of autonomic functions Profile materials. Control questions Situational tasks. Chapter 10.Physiology of muscles 10.1.General characteristics of muscles 10.2.Skeletal muscle contraction and relaxation. Relaxation of myofibrils. 10.3.Physiological features of skeletal muscles.. Types of muscle contraction Muscle strength and performance 10.4.Physiological characteristics of smooth muscles Profile materials. Control questions Situational tasks. Chapter 11.Regulation of movement 11.1.General characteristics of movement 11.2.Somatosensory system. 135 11.4.Brainstem role in movement regulation 13% 11.5.Role of the cerebellum in movement regulation 141 11.6.Role of basal ganglia in movement regulation 143 11.8.Cortical regulation of movement 145 11.9. General scheme of organization of purposeful movements Profile materials. 14 Control questions Situational tasks. 148 Chapter 12.Physical and chemical properties of blood erythrocytic system 149 12.1.Physicochemical properties of blood. 149 12.2.Erythrocytic system 153 Profile materials. 156 Control questions 157 Situational tasks.. 157 Chapter 13.Blood leucocyte system. Immune response system. 159 13.1.Leucocyte system Leukocytes of circulating blood 159 13.2.Physiological system of immune response. 162 Profile material 169 Control questions 169 Situational tasks. 170 14.3.Blood coagulation system 173 14.4. Anticoagulation blood system. 176 14.5.Neurohumoral regulation of blood coagulation and anticoagulation 177 14.6. Study of hemostasis 177 14.7.Human blood types 178 14.8. Blood transfusion 180 Profile materials. 180 Control questions 181 Situational tasks. 181 Chapter 15.Physiological functions of the heart.182 15.1.General characteristics of the cardiovascular system. 182 15.2.Automatism of the heart 183 15.4. Excitability and excitation of the heart.186 15.5.Contractility and contraction of the heart. 187 15.6.Hormonal heart function. 189 Control questions 190 Situational tasks. 190 Chapter 16.Regulation of cardiac activity 191 16.1.Myogenic mechanisms of heart self-regulation. 191 16.2.Intracardiac peripheral reflexes. 192 16.3.Nervous regulation 192 16.4.Humoral extracardiac regulation 195 Effect of hormones 195 16.5.Effect of electrolytes 195 16.6.Integration of heart regulating mechanism 195 16.7.Myocardial blood supply 195 Profile materials. 196 Control questions 197 Situational tasks. 197 Chapter 17.Pump functions of the heart. Methods of studying the heart. 198 17.1.Cardiac cycle 198 17.2.Methods of studying the cardiac cycle. 200 17.3.Energy support of the heart.. 201 17.4.Cardiac output assessment. 201 17.5.Heart sounds. 201 17.6.Mechanical manifestations of cardiac activity 202 17.7.Electrocardiography 203 Profile materials. 207 Control questions 207 Situational tasks. 207 Chapter 18.Vascular system and hemodynamics. Lymphatic system. 208 18.1.Basic laws of hemodynamics. 208 18.2.Functional characteristics of the vascular bed. 208 18.3. Regulation of vascular tone. 210 18.4. Blood pressure asan indicator of systemic hemodynamics. 211 18.5.Regulation of systemic hemodynamics 212 18.6.Studying hemodynamics. 213 Sphygmogram and phlebogram 214 18.7.Lymphatic system 214 Profile materials. 215 Control questions 216 Situational tasks. 216 Chapter 19.Regional hemodynamics 217 19.1.Regulation of regional hemodynamics 217 19.2. Blood supply to the brain. 219 19.4.Cutaneous circulation. 220 19.5.Circulation in skeletal muscles 221 19.6.Celiac circulation 222 Hepatic circulation. 222 Circulation in the spleen 223 Circulation in the gastrointestinal tract. 223 19.7.Pulmonary circulation. 224 19.8.Renal circulation. 225 Control questions 225 Situational tasks. 225 Chapter 20.Physiology and stages of respiration 226 20.2. Respiratory cycle. 226 20.3.Pulmonary and alveolar ventilation. 228 20.5.Work done while breathing 229 20.6.Respiratory tract function 230 20.7.Gas exchange in lungs 231 20.8.Transport of gases by blood. 232 20.9.Assessment of gas composition of blood.233 20.10.Gas exchange between blood and tissues 234 20.11.Tissue respiration\...\...\...\...\....234 20.12.Protective respiratory reflexes\...\...\...235 Profile materials\...\...\...\...\...\.....236 Control questions\...\...\...\...\...\...237 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\.....238 Chapter 21,Regulation of respiration\...\...\.....239 21.3.Respiratory center\...\...\...\...\.....240 21.4.Role of brainstem\...\...\...\...\.....242 21.6.Breath-holding functional tests\...\.....244 245 Control questions\...\...\...\...\...\...246 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\....246 Chapter 22.Acid-base balance\...\...\...\...\....247 22.2.Concentration of H+,blood pH\...\....247 22.5.Physical and chemical mechanisms of acid-base balance regulation\...\.....249 22.7.Clinical and physiological parameters of acid-base balance\...\...\...\...\...\....251 Control questions\...\...\...\...\.....252 Situational tasks\...\...\...\...\...\.....252 Chapter 23.Physiology of hypoxia\...\...\...\...254 23.1.System of blood oxygen transport\.....254 23.2.Physiological hypoxia\...\...\...\...\...255 Classification of hypoxia\...\...\...\....256 23.3.Intensity of function disorders and body\'s sensitivity to hypoxia \...\.....256 23.4.Hypoxia stages\...\...\...\...\...\.....257 23.5.Stages of adaptation to hypoxia\...\...\...\...\...\...\.....258 23.6.Mechanisms of adaptation response to hypoxia of physiological systems\...\...259 23.7.Factors influencing resistance to hypoxia. 23.8.Causes and mechanisms of different types of hypoxic states.. 23.9.Functional-metabolic impairment in hypoxia 23.10.Principles of elimination and prevention of hypoxic effects. Control questions. Situational tasks. Chapter 24.Digestive system. Digestion in the oral cavity.Swallowing 24.1.General characteristic of digestion. 24.2.Regulation of digestion.. 24.3.Digestive functions of digestive system 24.5.Methods of research of digestion 24.6.Digestion in the oral cavity 24.7.Swallowing. Profile materials. Control questions Situational task. Chapter 25.Digestion in the stomach and intestine 25.1.Digestion in the stomach. 25.2.Digestion in the small intestine. 25.3.Digestion in the colon Profile materials. Control questions Situational tasks. Chapter 26.Metabolism of substances and energy Nutrition 26.1.Functional nutrition system 26.2.Protein metabolism. 26.3.Lipid metabolism 26.4.Carbohydrate metabolism 26.5.Water and mineral metabolism. 26.6.Metabolism of vitamins 26,7.Energy balance of the body 26.8.Nutrition.\'Theories and concepts of nutrition.. Profile materials. Control questions Situational tasks, Chapter 27.Physiology of excretion 27.1.Physiological excretion system 27.3.Blood circulation in kidney. 27.4.Classification of renal functions 27.5,Glomerular ultrafiltration 27.6.Tubular reabso., 310 27.7.Tubular secretion. 27.8.Osmotic concentration of urine 27.9. Osmotic dilution of urine. 313 27.12.Urinary excretion and urination. 315 27.15. Regulation of acid-base balance 318 27.16. Incretion functions of kidneys 318 Profile materials.. 319 Control questions 320 Situational tasks. 320 Chapter 28. Thermoregulation. 322 28.1.General characteristics of thermoregulation 322 28.2.Heat generation 323 28.3.Heat transfer 325 28.4.Functional thermoregulation 327 Profile materials. 330 Control questions 331 Situational tasks. 331 Chapter 29. Tactile, nociceptive,gustatory, olfactory,interoceptive sensory systems. 332 29.2.Tactile sensory system 336 29.3. Nociceptivesensory system. 338 29.4.Gustatory sensory system 348 29.5.Olfactory sensory system. 351 29.6. Interoceptive sensory system. 353 Peripheral division. 353 29.7. Thermal sensory system. 353 29.8. Motor sensory system. 354 Profile materials. 354 Control questions 354 Situational tasks. 354 Chapter 30. Visual sensory system. 355 30.2.Dioptric apparatus of the eye. 355 30.3.Receptor apparatus of the visual system..356 30.5. Cortical division of the visual system\..... 360 30.6.Color perception\...\...\...\...\...\... 361 30.7.Adaptation of the visual system 362 30.8.Protective reflexes. 362 9.Eye movement.. 362 Visual sensory system study methods 363 Profile materials. 364 Control questions 364 Situational tasks. 364 Chapter 31.Auditory and vestibular sensory systems. 365 31.1.Auditory sensory system 365 31.2.Vestibular sensory system 371 Profile materials. 376 Control questions 376 Situational tasks. 377 Chapter 32. Higher nervous activity. Conditioned reflexes. Temperament. 378 32.1. General characteristics of higher nervous activity. 378 32.2.Conditioned reflexes. 379 32.3. Classification of conditioned reflexes. 380 32.4.Stages of conditioned reflex formation 380 32.6. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes. 382 32.7.Systemic activity of cerebral cortex 383 32.8. Types of HNA (temperament) 383 32.9.Phase phenomena in cerebral cortex 385 Profile materials. 385 Control questions 385 Situational tasks. 386 Chapter 33.Physiological bases of psychological functions 387 33.1.Sensation and perception. 387 33.2.Memory 388 33.3.Attention 393 33.4.Physiology of emotions 394 33.5.Sleep 397 33.6.Physiology of speech. 400 33.7.Physiological foundations of thinking 403 33.8.Physiology of conscious and subconscious 405 Profile materials. 406 Control questions 406 Situational tasks. 407 Chapter 34.Physiological bases of human behavior. 408 34.1.General characteristics. 408 34.4.Acquired behavioral components. 410 34.5.Functional behavior system. 410 Profile materials. 413 Control questions 413 Situational tasks. 413 Chapter 35.Reproductive system 414 35.1.General characteristics. 414 35.2.Prenatal period. 414 35.3.Sexual maturity in men 416 35.4.Sexual maturity in women. 418 35.6.Coitus,its phases and mechanism 424 Profile materials.. 425 Control questions 426 Situational tasks. 426 Chapter 36.Maternal-fetoplacental system 427 36.1.Physiology of pregnancy 427 36.2.Functions of the placenta. 430 36.5.Physiology of childbirth. 437 36.6.Physiology of lactogenesis and lactation..439 Control questions. 441 Situational tasks. 441 Chapter 37.Physiology ofadaptation. 442 37.1.General characteristics. 442 37.2.Classification of environmental factors (N.A. Aghajanyan, 2003) 442 37.3.Types of adaptation.. 442 37.4.Short-term adaptation 443 37.5.Long-term adaptation. 447 Features of psychogenic stress. 447 37.6.Physiological role of adaptation. 448 37.7.Biorhythm adaptation function. 449 General characteristics of biorhythms 449 Profile materials. 451 Control questions 452 Situational tasks. 452 Chapter 38.Physiology of functional load tests. Oxygen transport system. 453 38.2.Transitional states. 454 38.3.Concept of constitution and resistance 38.5.Significance of physical education for health maintenance and improvement. 38.6.Assessment of respiratory function 38.7.Assessment of cardiovascular function. 38.8.Additional methods of examining the cardiovascular system. Electrocardiography 38.9. MMain functional tests. 38.10.Functional testing of external respiration. Control questions Situational tasks.. Chapter 39.Principles of environmental physiology 39.1.Environmental profile. Ethnic physiological differences 39.2.Environmental profile, its characteristics Human physiology at high latitudes. Human physiology in hot climate. Morphofunctional features of tropic residents. Prevention of heat-induced disorders Human physiology in the mountains Habitat-dependent state ofhuman mineral metabolism Control questions. Situational tasks. Chapter 40. Physiology of labor. 40.1.General characteristics 40.2.Physical labor. 40.3.Physical training 40.4.Mental labor. 40.5.Human performance 40.6.Fatigue 40.7.Rest and recovery 40.8.Features of labor in modern industry Control questions Situational tasks. Sample answers to situational tasks. Bibliography **ABBREVIATIONS** **CHAPTER 1** **INTRODUCTION** **LOGY.** **GENERAL FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS** **OF THE HUMAN BODY** 1.1General characteristics of normal physiology 1.2 Methodological principles in physiology 1.3Physiological function 1.4 Cells and their functions 1.5 Characteristics of body tissues 1.6 General characteristics of organs 1.7 Whole organism Profile materials Control questions Situational tasks *Modern experimental physiology* (17th-21st cent.)*:*experiments on humans, analysis of the system in physi-ological investigations, studying the social factors that influence physiological functions - physiology of la-bor, ecophysiology. In the 18th century,the following advances were made: the doctrine of respiration as the basis for oxidation of substances in the body(Lavoisier),the reflex arc (J. Prochazka), the discovery of "animal electricity" (L. Galvani). In the 19th century the bio-potentials of rest and action, the state of refractoriness were discovered, the lawvs of irritation were described (E. Dubois-Raymond, E. Pfluger, N.E. Vvedensky and others), further investigation of the reflex activity of the nervous system was made (C. Bell, F. Magendie,I.M. Sechenov), the recorded electroencephalogram (V.V. Pravdic-Neminski), research into the physiology of the senses was conducted (D. Helmholtz, E. Weber,M. Flourens), the vasomotor center was discovered in the medulla oblongata (F.V. Ovsyannikov), the laws of the heart were formulated (O. Frank, E. Starling);the enzymatic theory of blood clotting was proposed (A.I. Schmid), and the phagocytic function of WBCs was discovered (I.I. Mechnikov). Large studies were conducted on the physiology of the digestive tract (R. Heidenhain, K. Bernard, K. Ludwig). Outstanding results were obtained by I.P. Pavlov and his team. For these I.P. Pavlov received the Nobel Prize in 1904.In the 20th century, in relation to the development of physiol-ogy in Russia, most important contribution was made by Pavlov\'s pupils (L.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, K.M. By-kov,A.D. Speransky, I.P. Razenkov, E.A. Asratyan,G.V.Folbort,D.A.Biryukov, etc.) and Sechenov\'s pupils (N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, N.M. Shaternikov,I.R. Tarkhanov, B.F. Verigo, A.F. Samoilov, etc.),each of these scientists founded a prominent physiological school. ***Principle of unity of the body and the environment.***The unity of the body and the environment is due to the fact that all biological and social systems are open systems in which a constant exchange of information with the environment, energy, and substance occurs.Physiological systems- nervous, digestive, respiratory,excretory, and thermoregulatory system play the lead-ing role in the unity of the body and the environment. ***Principle of determinism.*** Determinism is a part of the study of universal causality (determination) of objective phenomena. The principle of determinism is defined by a number of categories: cause, effect, condi-tions,connections,etc. **1.3.Physiological function** **1.4.Cells and their functions** 4 kinds of tissues. Cells are capable of self-reproduction,metabolism, irritability, adaptation, and variability. It is the smallest independent unit of life. **Main structural and functional components** **of the cell (Fig.1.1)** *Plasma* *membrane* (outer cell membrane,thickness ≈10 nm) has a barrier (dividing) function, transport function, and receptor function; it participates in the formation of biopotentials, and connects cells with each other via intercellular contacts. The most important functional units of the plasma membrane are ion chan-nels and pumps, proteins, transporters, enzymes,and receptors. The outer surface of the plasma membrane can be repeatedly increased due to microvilli. The sur-face of a plasma membrane is covered by glycocalyx-a layer about 50 nm thick consisting of oligosaccharides bound to lipids and membrane proteins. The functions of glycocalyx are intercellular recognition and interac-tion,parietal digestion, barrier (molecular sieve, mak-ing it difficult for large molecules, microbes, and viruses to enter the cell). ***Transport function of the cell membrane.*** *Cholesterol* increases the mechanical strength of the bilayer. In addition, it inhibits the phase transitions of the membrane (gel/liquid crystal), which can occur upon a change in temperature,pH,ionic strength,lead-ing to a sudden change in the viscosity of the bilayer associated with impairment of receptor, transport and enzymatic functions of the membrane. **CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY.GENERAL FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS\...** **15** *Carbohydrates* compose 2-10% of the membrane.They are oligosaccharide chains attached to proteins(gly-coproteins) and lipids (glycolipids) on the outer surface of the membrane by covalent bonds. Branched chains of glycolipids create a zone enriched with a carbohydrates and called glycocalyx on the outer surface of the plasma membrane. *Transport function of cell membrane.There* can be passive and active transport (Fig. 1.3). *Passive* *transport* of substances occurs from the zone of higher concentration to the zone of lower con-centration with a decrease in the energy of the trans-ported substance. It involves simple and facilitated dif-fusion. Simple diffusion is carried out through the lipid bi-layer and ion channels. Small molecules are transferred through the lipid bilayer: non-polar molecules like O2, Fig.1.2. Structure of the cell membrane (by Kamkin A.G.) *The* *main types of plasma membrane receptors.* Desensitization of receptors occurs when the signal is amplified or during the time when its action on the receptor is increased. 17 netically modified cells in mature tissues. A reduction in the ability to apoptose below the physiological level causes autoimmune and malignant diseases. **1.5.Characteristics of body tissues** Tissue is a system consisting of cells and extracellu-lar substance (tissue matrix) united by a common func-tion, structure, and/or origin. Tissue cells determine the specificity andproperties of the tissue. Tissue develop-ment is based on three basic processes: proliferation,differentiation, and cell death (apoptosis). Tissues, in turn,are components of organs. *Main types **and functions** of tissues.* There are four groups of tissues that provide the functions of the body:1) epithelial tissues that separate the body from the ex-ternal environment; 2) tissues of the internal environ-ment that maintain homeostasis; 3) muscle tissues that provide movement; 4) nerve tissues that are responsible for the analysis and synthesis of information and per-form an integrating function of the body. *Contact intercellular interactions* are formed by a contact of cells with one another. They create a mechan-ical and communicative connection between the cells.Mechanical bonds form adhesive contacts, communica-tion links form gap junction (nexus) (Fig.1.4). *Non-contact interactions* occur through formation of information molecules (hormones, antigens, antibod-ies, etc.) carried by bodily fluids-intercellular fluid,the blood,liquor, lymph. Their action on the cells of the same tissue where they are formed is called paracrine;their action on the cellsof other tissues is called endo-crine. The most common type of non-contact cell-cell interaction goes as follows:signal→receptor→second messenger→response. *Extracellular* *matrix* (high-molecular intercellular substances) plays an important role in *formation* oftis-*sue as a system of cells.* *The main intercellular substances* *are* collagen, lam-inin, fibronectin, nidogen, proteoglycans, etc. They ex-ist in the form of a gel capable of self-aggregation, as a result of which there are supramolecular structures like fibers, which interact with one another and with the sur-rounding cells. **1.6.General characteristics of organs** **CHAPTER 1.INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY.GENERAL FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS\...** **19** Cell Cell Connexons-side view Fig.1.4.Schematic representation of connexons connecting the cytosol of two cells(by Kamkin A.G.) **1.7.Whole organism** complex of interacting organs, implementing any major function at the organizational level. The modern control theory divides them into control systems (the nervous,endocrine and immune system) and controlled systems (blood circulation, respiratory and digestive system,etc.). *The* *nervous* *system* is responsible for reception,processing, and storage of information; it provides the integrity of the organism and a link with the external environment, allowing adaptation to it, purposeful behavior, and cognition of the external world and it-self. *The endocrine system* is involved in humoral regu-lation and coordination of the functions of organs, tis-sues,and the whole body. *The immune system* protects the body from foreign antigens of external and internal origin (provides an-tigenic homeostasis); it also participates in endocrine,metabolic, thermoregulatory, psychophysiological, and other processes. *The systems of blood and lymph circulation* are re-sponsible for microcirculation and metabolism in tis-sues, interrelation of all organs; they perform the func-tions of blood, and have sensory and thermoregulatory (heat transport) functions. *The blood system* has respiratory, trophic, excretory,immune, regulatory functions; it participates in the transport of heat, and regulation of the acid-base bal-ance(ABB). *Homeostasis (homeo* for equal, stasis for state) is the stability of the internal environment. The internal envi-ronment of the body cells is represented by intercellular fluid, blood plasma, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid.The internal environment is an intermediary between cells and the external environment. The concept of homeosta-sis was proposed by the French physiologist C. Bernard (1878), who stressed that the stability of the internal en-vironment as a necessary condition for the free life of hi-gher animals. The term homeostasis was suggested by the American physiologist W. Kennon (1929). Homeostasis is the most important evolutionary achievement,because it allows maintenance of the functional and structural or-der in the body, despite changes in the environment. Fig.1.5.Schematic representation of direct links and feedback in the regulation of physiological processes. See details in the text **Profile materials** **For students of all departments** ***Age periodization ofhuman ontogenesis*** *Antenatal period* 3\. Embryonic period: 2-8 weeks, the beginning of the development of the placenta, transition from his-totrophism to heterotrophic nutrition. 4\. Fetal period: 9-40 weeks,completion of placenta formation (12 week), formation of tissues and organs in the fetoplacental system. *Postnatal period* 1.Newborn: until 10 days. 2.Infancy:11 days-12 months. 3\. Early childhood: 12-24 months. 4.First period of childhood:3-7 years. 8.Middle age: 10.Old age:75-90 years. 11.Long-living person: over 90 years old. **Control questions** 2\. What historical stages of physiology do you know? 3\. What is health and a healthy lifestyle? 9.What types of transport exist in the cell? 13\. What are the main physiologica systems? 15\. What types of regulation exist? 16\. What is the main role of homeostasis? **Situational tasks** 2+2=4; -2\4. Task 1.4. Consider the three stages of physical activ-ity in a long-distance runner. 1.The runner is at the start position,they are not exercising,but the respiratory cem-ter and the heart are excited, as evidenced by a minute increase in the volume of respiration and circulation 2.The runner has started running. Stimulation of cir-culation and respiration has increased,although the gas composition of the blood and its pH have not changed.3. The runner has finished the distance (10 km) and rests in a horizontal position. The muscular load has stopped,but the enhanced excitation of the respiratory and cardiovascular center continues,the pH value in the blood,oxygen tension have diminished, the lactate level has increased. Describe these stagesin terms of three cybernetic principles of self-regulation.