Art and Culture (Supplementary Material) PDF

VISIONIAS ™ www.visionias.in www.visionias.wordpress.com ART AND CULTURE ( SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL ) Copyright © by Vision IAS All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: ART AND CULTURE – SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL Contents 1] Architecture and Sculpture........................................................................................................ 4 2] Classification of India Architecture............................................................................................ 4 3] Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization) Art.................................................................. 5 3.1 Seals..................................................................................................................................... 5 3.2 Sculpture.............................................................................................................................. 5 3.3 Terracotta............................................................................................................................. 6 3.4 Pottery.................................................................................................................................. 6 3.5 Beads and Ornaments.......................................................................................................... 7 3.6 Extensive Town Planning...................................................................................................... 7 4] Mauryan Art............................................................................................................................... 8 4.1 Pillars.................................................................................................................................... 9 4.2 Stupas................................................................................................................................. 10 4.3 Caves.................................................................................................................................. 11 4.4 Sculpture............................................................................................................................ 12 4.5 Pottery................................................................................................................................ 12 5] Post – Mauryan Art.................................................................................................................. 12 5.1 Caves Tradition................................................................................................................... 13 5.2 Stupas................................................................................................................................. 13 5.3 Sculpture............................................................................................................................ 14 6] Gupta Age................................................................................................................................ 15 6.1 Rock Cut Cave..................................................................................................................... 16 6.2 Sculpture............................................................................................................................ 18 6.3 Temple Architecture........................................................................................................... 18 Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 1 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 6.4 Styles of Temples................................................................................................................ 19 Temple Architecture in South India.............................................................................................. 21 7.0 Dravida Style.......................................................................................................................... 21 7.1 Nayaka Style....................................................................................................................... 23 7.2 Vijaynagar Legacy............................................................................................................... 24 8.0 Vesara Style/Chalukya Style/Karnataka Style........................................................................ 24 Architecture in Medieval India..................................................................................................... 24 9.0 Indo-Islamic Style................................................................................................................... 24 9.1 Imperial Style..................................................................................................................... 26 9.2 Provincial Style................................................................................................................... 28 9.3 Mughal Period.................................................................................................................... 29 Modern India and European Influence........................................................................................ 33 Some Famous Architects of Modern India................................................................................... 36 INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE............................................................................................................ 37 Bharatnatyam Dance................................................................................................................ 37 Kuchipudi................................................................................................................................. 39 Kathakali Dance........................................................................................................................ 40 Kathak Dance........................................................................................................................... 43 Manipuri................................................................................................................................... 44 Odissi........................................................................................................................................ 46 Sattriya..................................................................................................................................... 48 Mohiniyattam........................................................................................................................... 49 INDIAN PAINTING......................................................................................................................... 50 Sadanga of Indian painting....................................................................................................... 51 Genres of Indian Painting......................................................................................................... 51 10 Murals.................................................................................................................................... 51 Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 2 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 10.1 Badami paintings............................................................................................................ 52 10.2 Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Chola kings...................................................... 52 10.3 Vijayanagara murals....................................................................................................... 53 10.4 Nayaka Murals................................................................................................................ 54 10.5 Kerala Murals.................................................................................................................. 54 11 Miniature Painting................................................................................................................. 54 11.1 The Pala School (11th – 12th Century)............................................................................. 54 11.2 Western Indian School of Painting................................................................................. 55 11.3 Mughal Painting............................................................................................................. 56 11.4 Rājput Painting................................................................................................................ 57 12 Modern Painting.................................................................................................................... 60 Phases...................................................................................................................................... 64 Identity..................................................................................................................................... 65 Changes.................................................................................................................................... 65 Different forms of Traditional Theatre..................................................................................... 66 Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 3 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his/herown shelter to live in. Indian Architecture evolved in various stages in different parts and regions of the country. Apart from the natural and obvious evolutions evolutions from the pre historic and historic periods, evolution of Indian Architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasty in the subcontinent, each in their their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian architecture. 1] Architecture and Sculpture Architecture refers to designing of and construction of buildings, whereas sculpture is a 3D work of art. In Architecture, various types of materials materials are used i.e. stone, wood, glass, metal etc. whereas sculpture is made of single piece of material. Architecture involves study of engineering and engineering mathematics and depends upon measurement, whereas sculpture involves creativity, imagination and nd may not depend on measurement. 2] Classification of India Architecture Indian Architecture can be classified into as follows - Ancient Medieval Modern India India India Delhi Indo-Gothic Harappa Art Sultanate Style Mughal Neo-Roman Mauryan Art Period Style Post Mauryan Art Gupta Age Art South India Architecture Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, B/1 Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 9 09650617807,, 09968029039, 099 09717162595 4 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 3] Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization) Art Harappan civilization emerged during second half of the third millennium BCE and was a Bronze Age Civilization. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of the three early civilizations of the world. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar - Hakra River, which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan. The two major sites of the Indus valley civilization are along the Indus River. The cities of Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south showcase one of the earliest examples of civil planning. While Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are situated in Pakistan, the important sites excavated in India are Lothal and Dholavira in Gujrat, Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in Punjab, Kalibangan and Balathal in Rajasthan, etc.At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of over five million. 3.1 Seals Seals are square, rectangular or circular or triangular piece of material (mainly stones). The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite. Every seal is engraved in pictographic script along with animal impressions which are yet to be deciphered. Some of seals have also been found in gold and Ivory. On an average 5 signs or symbols are present on a seal. Direction of writing is right to left. They all bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull, the elephant, tiger, goat and also monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted. Most important example is Pashupati Seal and Unicorn Seal which are shown below. Pashupati Seal Unicorn Seal Significance of Seals 1) They were mainly used as unit of trade and commerce. 2) They were also used as an amulet (to ward off the evil). 3) They were also used as an educational tool (presence of pie sign). 3.2 Sculpture The stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling three- dimensional volumes. In stone are two male figures— one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a bust of a bearded man in steatite—which are extensively discussed. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 5 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: The art of bronze casting was practiced on a wide scale under Harappan art. The technique used for casting is known as "Lost wax technique". Under this technique, at first wax figures are covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then it is heated and the molten wax is allowed to drain out through a tiny hole at the bottom of the clay cover. The hollow mould is then filled with bronze or any other metal. Once the metal is cooled, the clay is removed.Kalibangan and Bearded Man Dancing Girl Daimabad yielded excellent examples of metal-cast sculptures.In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit. 3.3 Terracotta Terracotta is a fire baked clay and is handmade using pinching method.The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but as compared to stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan. Examples are Mother Goddess, Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds and animals, etc. Mother Goddess Toy carts with wheels 3.4 Pottery A large quantity of pottery excavated from the sites indicates gradual evolution of various design motifs as employed in different shapes and styles. Potteries were mainly plain, red and Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 6 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: black painted. The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel- made wares, very few being hand-made. Plain pottery is more common than painted ware. Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs. The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black paint. Use of Pottery 1. For household purpose (storage of water, food grains etc). 2. For decoration- Miniature vessels used for decoration (Less than ½ inch). 3. Used as perforated pottery (large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the wall, and probably was used for straining liquor.) 3.5 Beads and Ornaments The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with a large variety of ornaments produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious metals, gemstones, bone and even baked clay. Necklaces, armlets and finger rings were common and worn by both males and females. While women wore girdles, earrings and anklets. The bead industry seems to have been well developed as evident from the factories discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst, steatite, tourquise etc. The beads are in varying shapes – disc shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel shaped and segmented. Great technical skill has been displayed in the manufacture of these beads. Evidences of dead bodies buried along with ornaments have also been found. Harappans were also conscious of fashion (as different hair styles, wearing of a beard etc have been found). Cinnabar was used as cosmetic, Lipstick, face-paint and even eyeliner's were all known to them. 3.6 Extensive Town Planning Citadel For elites Non–citadel for commoner's A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centers in the region. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained the water from wells. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites. Roads used to cut at right angles. Houses were built of baked bricks of fixed sizes. Use of stone and wood in buildings has also been found. The concept of two-storied houses was also present. Citadels were supposed to be the habitation of elites but its purpose still remains debated. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. Granaries were another important creation which used to be located in citadel. Their construction was intelligent and it has strategic air-ducts and platforms. Public bath was a common feature e.g. Great bath at Mohenjo-Daro (It has galleries and rooms on all sides).Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation. Spinning of cotton and wool was common among the Harappan people. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 7 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: The Great Bath, at Mohenjo-Daro Granaries 4] Mauryan Art No significant architectural remains have been found corresponding to the period between the Harappans and the Mauryas. This is probably because buildings were not made of stone in this period. 6thcentury BCE marked the beginning of new socio-religious movements in the Gangetic valley in the form of Buddhism and Jainism which were part of Shraman tradition1. By 4th century BCE, Mauryas established their power and Ashoka patronized Shraman tradition in 3rd century BCE and encouraged the development of distinct sculptural and architectural styles. Religious practices had many dimensions and were not confined to one particular mode of worship. Worship of Yakshas and mother goddesses were prevalent at that time, which later got assimilated into Buddhism and Jainism. Mauryan art represents an important transition in Indian art from use of wood to stone. 1 Shraman tradition – Srama means "one who strives" or "Laborer" in Sanskrit and Pali. The term was applied to those who whole heartedly practiced towards enlightenment and was used for monks. Shraman tradition is best kept in term parivrajaka, meaning a homeless wanderer. Shraman tradition gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism and some nāstika schools of Hinduism such as Carvaka and Ajivika. And it is also popular in major Indian religions and concepts such as Sa-Sara (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle). Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 8 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Mauryan Art Court Art Popular Art (State (Individuals Initiative) Initiative) Pillars Stupas Sculptures Caves Pottery 4.1 Pillars The court art of Ashoka is best seen in the white-grey whi sandstone columns erected by him all over his empire either to mark a sacred site associated with Buddha’s life or to commemorate a great event. On many of these pillars are inscribed the famous edicts of Ashoka propagating the Dhamma (laws of the Buddha) or the imperial sermons of Ashoka to his people. Rising to an average height of about 40 feet, the pillars in their most developed state, are tall, tapering monoliths with sculptured capitals, incorporating a series of fluted petals in elongated shape, s (which falling together takes the form of a bell, commonly known as the Persepolitan Bell) surmounted by a square or circular abacus ornamented with animal and floral motifs in relief. The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like lik the bull, the lion, the elephant etc. Noteworthy are the lion capitalof Sarnath, the bull capital of Rampurva and the lion capital of Laurya Nandangarh. These pillars were carved in two types of stone. Some Som were of spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff colored fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in Chunar near Varanasi.The uniformity of style in the pillar capital suggests that they were we all Pillar capital and sculpted by the craftsmen from the same region. abacus with stylised lotus The tradition of constructing pillars is very old and it may be observed that erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian empire as well. But the Mauryan pillars are different from the Achamenian Achame pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut cut pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills, whereas the Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason. Sarnath Lion Capital The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly popu known as the Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition. Built in commemoration of the historical event of the first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by Buddha at Sarnath, the capital was built by Ashoka. Lion Capital, Sarnath Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, B/1 Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 9 09650617807,, 09968029039, 099 09717162595 9 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: The capital originally consisted of five component parts: (i) the shaft (which is broken in many parts now), (ii) a lotus bell base, (iii) a drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise, (iv) the figures of four majestic addorsed lions, and (v) the crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel, was also a part of this pillar. However, this wheel is lying in a broken condition.The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India. The surface of the sculpture is heavily polished which is typical of the Mauryan Period. The abacus has the depiction of a chakra (wheel) having twenty four spokes in all four directions and a bull, a horse, an elephant anda lion between every chakra is finely carved. The motif of the chakra becomes significant as a representation of Dhammachkrain the entire Buddhist art. 4.2 Stupas The stupa was not unknown in India before the time of Ashoka. From the time Ashoka divided up the existing body relics of the Buddha and erected monuments to enshrine them, the stupas became the objects of cult worship. In Buddhist tradition, originally the 9 stupas were built after the death of Buddha - 8 of them over the relics and 9th over the vessel in which the relics were originally deposited.Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilvastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina. The core of the stupa was made up of unburnt brick and the outer face of burnt brick, covered with thick layer of plaster. The stupa was crowned by an umbrella of wooden fence enclosing a path for pradaskshina (circumambulatory path). One of the best examples of the structure of a stupa in the third century BCE is at Bairat in Rajasthan. It is a very grand stupa having a circular mound with a circumambulatory path. The great stupaat Sanchi was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and later it was covered with stone and many new additions were made. In the subsequent century, stupas were elaborately built with certain additions like the enclosing of the circumambulatory path with railings and sculptural decoration. There were numerous stupas constructed earlier but expansions or new additions were made in the second century BCE. The stupa consists of a cylindrical drum and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra on the top which remain consistent throughout with minor variations and changes in shape and size. The three chhatra on the stupas represent triratnasof Buddhism i.e. Buddha (The enlightened), Dhamma (doctrine) and Sangh (order). Apart from the circumambulatory path, gateways were added. Thus, with the elaborations in stupa architecture, there was ample space for the architects and sculptors to plan elaborations and to carve out images. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 10 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Plan of Stupa During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc. This indicates either simple worship, or paying respect, or at times depicts historisisation of life events. Gradually narrative became a part of the Buddhist tradition. Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and torans of the stupas. Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous narrative and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial tradition. While events from the life of the Buddha became an important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the Jataka stories also became equally important for sculptural decorations. The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted were events related to the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakrapravartana, and mahaparinibbana (death). Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka. 4.3 Caves Mauryan period also saw the firm establishment of rock-cut architecture. The notable rock-cut caves carved at Barabar and Nagarjuni hills near Gaya in Bihar are Sudama and Lomus Rishi cave. Architecturally, their main interest lies in being the earliest known examples in India of rock-cut method. The facade of the Lomus Rishi cave is decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The elephant frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows considerable movement. The interior hall of this cave is Lomas Rishi cave - entrance detail Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 11 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The entrance is located on the side wall of the hall. The cave was patronised by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect. The two important features of the caves of this period were – 1) Polishing inside the cave. 2) Development of artistic gateway. 4.4 Sculpture The work of local sculptors illustrates the popular art of the Mauryan Period. This consisted of sculpture which probably was not commissioned by the Emperor. The patrons of the popular art were the local governors. Large statues of Yaksha and Yakshiniare found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. These monumental images are mostly in the standing position. One of the distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail. The life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk) from Didargunj near modern Patna is one of the finest examples of the sculptural tradition of the Mauryan Period. It is a tall, well- proportioned, free-standing sculpture in round made in sandstone with a polished surface. Yakshini is considered as folk goddess in all major religions. Didargunj Yakshini 4.5 Pottery The pottery associated with the Mauryan period consists of many types of wares. But the most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery known as Northern Black polished ware (NBPW), which was the hallmark of the preceding and early Mauryan Periods. The NBPW is made of finely levigated alluvial clay. It can be distinguished from other polished or graphite coated red wares by its peculiar luster and brilliance. It was largely used for dishes and small bowls. 5] Post – Mauryan Art From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire: the Shungas, Kanvas, and Guptas in the north and parts of central; the Satavahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakataks in southern and western India. Incidentally it also marked the beginning of main Bramhanical sects such as the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. However the most important part of that period was arrival of foreign tribal groups like the Indo Greeks. They mingled themselves with the various changes - socio cultural, political and economic level, which heralded almost a new kind of architecture typically termed as the “Post Mauryan Architecture”. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 12 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: The construction of Caves, Stupas and sculpture continued from where it was in the Mauryan Period. Notable was the advancement in Sculpture making which reached its climax during this period. Some of the finest sculptures are found at Vidisha, Barhat (M.P.), (M.P.), Bodha Gaya (Bihar) Jaggayapeta (A.P.), Mathura (U.P.) Khandgiri-Udaigiri Khandgiri Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune, Pavani near Nagpur (Maharashtra). 5.1 Caves Tradition In n western India, many Buddhist caves dating back to the second century BCE onwards have been excavated. avated. Mainly three architectural types were executed – (1) Apsidal Vault – Roof Chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pithalkhora, Bhaja); (2) Apsidal Vault – Roof pillarless hall (found at Thana – Nadsur); and (3) Flat- Roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at back (found at Kondivite). In all the chaitya caves a stupa at the back is common. The second important development in the caves was excavation of Viharas.. The plan of viharas consists of a veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the halls. Some of the important vihara caves are Ajanta Cave no. 12, Bedsa Bedsa cave no. 11, Nashik cave no. 3, 10, 17. Purpose of cave structures: Chaitya hall, Karla Chaitya Vihara Prayer hall Residence/ Rest place of for monks Monks 5.2 Stupas The original brick Stupa built during Ashoka’s timewas at first enclosed by wooden fence and later replaced by the massive stone balustrade. All the four gateways were now now carved with beautiful sculptures. Stupa – 1 at Sanchi has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or circumbulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha and the jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief, filling up the entire space. Depiction of picture gets naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Carving technique appeared more advanced. Symbols continued to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi Buddhas2. According ng to tradition, there are 24 Buddhas but only 1st one dipankar and last six are pictorially represented at Sanchi -1. 2 Manushi Buddha or Past Buddhas–Human Human Buddha with nirvana kaya,, a body of transformation, lived among men, once performed his tasks, enters nirvana and is then beyond the power of men Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, B/1 Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 9 09650617807,, 09968029039, 099 09717162595 13 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 5.3 Sculpture The apex of the sculpture making is said to be found in this period. The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan), Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh emerged as important centres of art production. Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara Tradition. The Gandhara region had long been a crossroads of cultuaral influences. During the reign of Emperor Ashoka, the region became the scene of intensive Buddhist missionary activity. And in the 1st century CE, rulers of Kushan empire which included Gandhara, maintained contacts with Rome. In its interpretation of Buddhist legends, the Gandhara school incorporated many motifs and techniques from classical Roman Art. On the other hand, the local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India. Gandhara Mathura Amravati Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas ) faith are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are found in large numbers. Basis Gandhara Mathura Vengi (Amravati) Influence Greek or Hellenistic No outside influence; Indigenous influence also called Indigenous Indo-Greek Types of Grey/Bluish grey Spotted red sandstone White marbles Sandstone sandstone Religious influence Mainly Buddhist All 3 religions – Jainism, Mainly Buddhist Buddhism, Hinduism Patronized by Kushana dynasty Kushana Dynasty Satavahans and Icchavakus Areas North West frontier Mathura, Sonkh, Krishna-Godavari Kankalitila (Mostly Jaina) lower valley Features of Spiritual Buddha Delighted Buddha i.e. Reflects Sculptures (Sad Buddha) not spiritual narratives theme represents head and face Shaven based on life of calmness, dress is tight; energetic Buddha and Bearded, body Jataka stories. Moustache face reflects grace Stories of Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 14 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: wearing less seated in Padmasana. previous births of ornaments Right hand in Buddha - both in wavy hair AbhayMudra (Indicate human as well as (Greek) reassurance) raised animal form. large forehead above shoulder, Left Sculptural (Greek) hand on left thigh composition is Buddha is (reflect muscularity). more complex seated in Protuberance on head. and characterized position of yogi by intense Having large emotions, bodies ears (Greek) are shown with Eyes half closed three bents (i.e. Protuberance on tribhanga) his head (signifies that Buddha knows all) pment in Gandhara Scuplture: Later Development Gandhara: Two Schools Early Later Use of Bluish Use of Mud and Stucco grey sandstone (lime plaster) 6] Gupta Age The Gupta period may be described as ‘classic’ in the sense of the degree of perfection it achieved - something that was never achieved before and has seldom been achieved since - and in perfect balance and harmony of all elements in style and iconography. That is why it is also considered as "The Golden Age of Indian Architecture". The Guptas were Bramhanical by Religion (Hindus) with special devotion to Vishnu, but they showed exemplary tolerance for both Buddhism and Jainism. Puranic Hinduism with its three th deities – Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti, as the consort of Shiva came to forefront. The art of period is marked by a deep spiritual quality and a vision which tries to record the higher and deeper truths of life. While the early Gupta period shows an emphasis emphasis on Hindu art, the climax of Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, B/1 Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 9 09650617807,, 09968029039, 099 09717162595 15 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Buddhist art, with all the previous tendencies combined into a classical statement, comes during the later period. The rock cut cave temple and monastery tradition also continued in this period, notably in western India, where the excavations – especially at Ajanta acquire extreme richness and magnificence. The monasteries are characterized by the introduction of images into some of the cells, so that they are of the nature of the temples instead of being simple residences. While there were some striking cave architectural pieces, the Gupta period is specially marked for the development of new temple styles. 6.1 Rock Cut Cave 6.1.1 Ajanta Caves It is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state. Ajanta has twenty nine caves. It has four chaitya caves datable to earlier phase, i.e. second and first century BCE and the later phase i.e. the fifth century. It has large chaitya-viharas and is decorated with sculptures and paintings. Ajanta is the only surviving example of the paintings of the first century BCE and the fifth century CE. These caves are carved on a Ajanta Caves perpendicular cliff. As they are on perpendicular side, there are no courtyards. All the three forms of Art are combined in these caves : Architecture, Sculpture, Paintings. Fresco Mural Paintings inside the Cave Flying Apsara Padampani Mural Paintings of Ajanta Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 16 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment and with the setting of the plaster, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall. 6.1.2Ellora Caves Another important cave site located in Aurangabad district is Ellora. It is located a hundred kilometers from Ajanta and has thirty-two Buddhist, Bramhanical and Jain caves. It is a unique art historical site in the country as it has monasteries associated with the three religions dating from fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE. It is also unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e. confluence of many styles at one place. There are twelve Buddhist caves having many images belonging to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya etc. Buddhist caves are big in size and are of single, double and triple storey. Their pillars are massive. Ajanta also has the excavated double storey caves but at Ellora, the triple storey is a unique achievement. All the caves were plastered and painted but nothing visible is left. Unlike the Ajanta caves, the Ellora cave temples were carved out on the sloping side of the hill. Hence most of the temples have courtyards. The sculptures at Ellora are monumental, and have protruding volume that create deep recession in the picture space. The images are heavy and show considerable sophistication. Cave no 16 is a rock cut temple, known as Kailash leni and it has been carved out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans. Kailash Temple 6.1.3 Elephanta Caves The Elephanta caves located near Mumbai, were originally a Buddhist site which was later dominated by the Shaivite faith. It is contemporary with Ellora and its sculptures show slenderness in the body, with stark light and dark effects. 6.1.4 Bagh Caves It is located near Indore in Madhya Pradesh. There are 9 sandstone Buddhist Caves with beautiful Frescos and sculptured work. It is dated around sixth century CE. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 17 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 6.1.5 Junagarh Caves (Uparkot) It is ancient fortress. Its entrance, in the form of an archway is a fine specimen of Hindu torana. Uparkot has many interesting Buddhist caves and was evidently the site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient times. 6.1.6 Nashik Caves It is located to SW of Nashik, in Trimbak range of hills. There are 23 Buddhist caves belonging to Hinayana Period of Buddhist architecture and dating back to the 1st Century CE. These are called as Pandu leni meaning group of caves. 6.1.7 Montepzir/Mandapeshwar Cave The caves are of particular interest as they are probably the onlyBramhanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine. 6.2 Sculpture One new school was added i.e. Sarnath school of sculpture, which developed near Sarnath. Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders and halo around the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha images continue to depict the folds of the drapery in the Buddha images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated. Noteworthy example is Sultanganj Buddha (7.5ft in height). 6.3 Temple Architecture Seated Buddha, Sarnath Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. Manuals were written regarding how to form temples. The Gupta temples were of five main types: 1) Square building with flat roof shallow pillared porch; as Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa and the Vishnu Varaha temples at Eran. The nucleus of a temple – the sanctum or cella (garbhagriha) – with a single entrance and a porch (Mandapa) appears for the first time here. 2) An elaboration of the first type with the addition of an ambulatory (paradakshina) around the sanctum sometimes a second storey; examples the Shiva temple at Bhumara(M.P.) and the lad- khan at Aihole. Another noteworthy example is Pārbati temple at Nachnakuthara (M.P.). 3) The square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above; pillared approach, a high Nachnakuthara platform at the base; notable examples are the Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 18 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Dasavatara temple (Deogarh Jhansi) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon Kanpur. The most unique achievement of this stage was "Curvilinear tower" i.e. "Shikhara". "Nagara Style " temple making is said to be the success of third stage of temple making. 4) Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof above such as the Kapoteswara temple at Cezarla( Krishna district). 5) Circular temples with shallow rectangular projection at the four cardinal faces; the only monument exemplifying the style is the Maniyar Math shrine at Rajgir, Bihar. (The fourth and fifth types appear to be survivals/adaptations of the earlier forms and do not appear to have much influenced subsequent development). Maniyar Math 6.4 Styles of Temples 6.4.1 Nagara School of Architecture The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara. In north India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it. It is a square temple with a number of graduated projections –rathakas – in the middle of each face which gives it a cruciform shape on the exterior. A tower (sikhara) gradually curving inwards and capped by a spheroid slab with ribs round the edge (Amalaka) give the elevation. Thus the two major characteristics of this style are the cruciform ground plan and the curvilinear tower. Three subtypes of Nagara temple depending upon the shape of Shikhara – 1) Rekha Prasad or Latina – Simple Shikhara, most common type, square at the base and its walls curve or slope inward to a point on the top. The top is called 'latina' or the rekha-Prasad type of Shikhara. 2) Phamsana – Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina buildings. There roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the center of building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana buildings do not curve inwards, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. In many North Indian temples Phamsana Phamsana was used for mandapa and latina for Garbhgriha. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 19 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 3) Valabhi type – Rectangular building with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. They are usually called as wagon vaulted buildings. Example : Nandi devi or Nav durga temple Jogeshwar. Valabhi Temples Three sub schools developed under Nagara style - A. Odisha School The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e. rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra. Most of the main temple sites are located in ancient Kalinga—modern Puri District, including Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark. The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct substyle within the nagara order. In general, here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha. The ground plan of the Konark Temple main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning mastaka. This makes the spire nearly cylindrical in appearance in its length. Compartments and niches are generally square, the exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare. Odisha temples usually have boundary walls. Example: Konark Temple, Jagannath temple, Lingaraj temple. B. Khujuraho/Chandel school Under the Chandela kings of Bundelkhand, a great school of architecture flourished in the 10th and 11th century. An example of this style is a group of temples at Khajuraho, in Madhya Pradesh. The finest is the shaivite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev, built around CE 1000. The standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and an entrance portico. These entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the odishan stylethey were concieved as separate elements joined by vestibules. The sikhara is curved for its whole length, and miniature sikharas emerge from the central tower. The halls and porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which rise progressively to lead the eye upto the main tower, and give the impression of a mountain range. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 20 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Khajuraho’s temples are also known for their extensiveerotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equalimportance in human experience as spiritual pursuit, andit is seen as part of a larger cosmic whole. Many Hindutemples therefore feature mithun (embracing couple)sculptures, considered auspicious. Usually, they are placedat the entrance of the temple or on an exterior wall orthey may also be placed on the walls between the mandapaand the main shrine. Kandariya Mahadev C. Solanki School The Chalukya (Solanki) kings of Gujarat patronized this school of architecture that flourished from the 11th to 13th century. The Vimala, Tejpala and Vastupala temples at Mount Abu exhibit this style. The most outstanding feature of this style is its minute and lovely decorativeness. The Sun temple at Modhera dates back to earlyeleventh century and was built by Raja Bhimdev-Iof the Solanki Dynasty in 1026. The Solankis werea branch of the later Chalukyas. Modhera Sun Temple There is amassive rectangular stepped tank called the suryakund in front of it. Proximity of sacred architectureto a water body such as a tank, a river or a pondhas been noticed right from the earliest times.By the early eleventh century they had become apart of many temples. This hundred-square-metrerectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank inIndia. A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carvedin between the steps inside the tank. A huge ornamentalarch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assemblyhall) which is open on all sides, as was the fashion of thetimes in western and central Indian temples. The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat isevident in the lavish carving and sculpture work. However,the walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carvingand are left plain as the temple faces the east and, everyyear, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directlyinto this central shrine. Temple Architecture in South India 7.0 Dravida Style South Indian temple architecture, also called Drāvida Style, architecture invariably employed for Hindu temples in modern Tamil Nadu from the 7th to the 18th century, characterized by its pyramidal, or KŪTINA-type, tower. Variant forms are found in Karnataka (formerly Mysore) and Andhra Pradesh states. The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 21 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (MANDAPA, or MANDAPAM), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the KŪTINA type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial. The origins of the Drāvida style can be observed in the Gupta period. The earliest extant examples of the developed style are the 7th-century rock-cut shrines at Mahābalipuram and a developed structural temple, the Shore Temple (C. 700), at the same site. The South Indian style is most fully realized in the splendid Brhadīśvara temple at Thanjāvūr, built about 1003–10 by Rājarāja the Great, and the great temple at Gangaikondacōlapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rājendra Cōla. Subsequently, the style became increasingly elaborate—the complex of temple buildings enclosed by the court became larger, and a number of successive enclosures, each with its own gateway (GOPURA), were added. By the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the GOPURAs had increased in size so that they dominated the much smaller temples inside the Figure 1 Brhadisvara enclosures. Four stages of temple architecture had been observed in South India Mainly during the Pallava's rule, around 6th century AD. Which are as follows: Stage–1 Mahendra Group :– It marked the beginning of Rock cut cave architecture and word Mandap was used instead temple. Stage-II–Narsimha Group :– Major development during this period was initiation of Decoration in rock cut cave structures and Mandap’s now became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave famous for beauty. The biggest Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and smallest one was called as draupadi Rath. Dharamraj Rath is considered as precursor of Dravidian style of temple making. Stage–III–Rajsimha Group :– At this stage the real structural development of temple’s started and it moved outside the cave, earlier temples were part of caves. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 22 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, (TN) Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram. Figure 2 Shore Temple Figure 3 Kailash Nath Stage IV – Nandivarman Group: It is said to be the declining stage of south Indian temple architecture and only small temples were constructed in this period. Chola Sculpture: NATRAJ Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic world with which this dancing position is associated. In this chola sculpture he has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara, the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of same leg. At the same time he raises his left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is kicking away the veil of maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind. His four arms are outstretched and main hand is posed in Abhayahasta or the Gesture suggesting. The upper right hand hold & Damaru, his favourite musical instrument to keep on the beat tala. The upper left hand is held in dola hasta and connects with the Abhaya hasta of the right hand. His Hair flocks fly on both the sides touching the Figure 4 Natraj circular jwala mala or the garland of flame, which surrounds the entire dancing figuration. Sub Styles of Dravida Temples 7.1 Nayaka Style The Nayakas rose on the fall of Vijayanagara empire. They continued, indeed furthered, the artistic tradition of Dravida style. The most famous architectural landmark of this period is the Meenakshi- Sundareswara temple at Madurai. The great temple complex has actually two shrines; the first one dedicated to Shiva as Sundareswara and the second one to Figure 5 Meenakshi Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 23 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: his wife Meenakshi. Along with the All the feature’s of Dravidian style being present, an additional prominent feature called ‘Parakram’s are of quite interest. Prakram’s are huge Corridore’s along with roofed ambulatory passageways. It served to connect various parts of temple while enclosing certain areas. Intricate carvings are seen all across the temple walls. The large tank set slightly off the axis to the main temple is another impressive feature of the temple. Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico, the tank was used for ritual bathing. 7.2 Vijaynagar Legacy Some variation to the common trend was introduced in Vijaynagar. They introduced the concept of enlarged high enclosure walls and more decoration on these high enclosure walls and Gopuram’s. Sculpture or motif of supernatural horses was used very frequently. They also introduced the concept of secular buildings (Example-Lotus Mahal). Typically Vijaynagar period structures in the temple are the Amman Shrine (male deity of temple) and Kalyan Mandapam for exhibition and worship. 8.0 Vesara Style/Chalukya Style/Karnataka Style This style has features of both Nagara and Dravidian style. It consists of two principle components like Dravidian style i.e. (i) Vimana (ii) Mandap. And departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered ambulatory around sanctum. Example: Lad Khan temple at aihole, Temples at Badami, Virupaksha temple – Pattadakal. Figure 6 Virupaksha Temple Architecture in Medieval India 9.0 Indo-Islamic Style Indo-Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles from various backgrounds that helped shape the architecture of the Indian subcontinent from the advent of Islam in the Indian subcontinent around the 7th century. It has left influences on modern Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture. Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture which exhibit Indian, Persian, Arab and the Turkish. The Islamic rule in India saw the introduction of many new elements in the building style also. This was very much distinct from the already prevailing building style adopted in the construction of temples and other secular architecture. The main elements in the Islamic architecture is the introduction of arches and beams, and it is the arcuate style of construction while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate, using pillars and beams and lintels. The early buildings of the Slave dynasty did not employ true Islamic building styles and consisted of Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 24 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: false domes and false arches. Later, the introduction of true arches and true domes start to appear, the earliest example is the Alai Darwaza by the side of Qutb Minar. The different religious beliefs are also reflected in the mode of construction and architectural styles. The Islamic style also incorporated many elements from the traditional Indian style and a compound style emanated. The introduction of decorative brackets, balconies, pendentive decorations, etc in the architecture is an example in this regard. The other distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture are the utilisation of kiosks (chhatris), tall towers (minars) and half-domed double portals. As human worship and its representation are not allowed in Islam, the buildings and other edifices are generally decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs. These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on plaster, painted or inlaid. The use of lime as mortar was also a major element distinct from the traditional building style. The tomb architecture is also another feature of the Islamic architecture as the practice of the burial of the dead is adopted. The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of a domed chamber (hujra), a cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the western wall and the real grave in the underground chamber. To this general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing gardens all around the tomb. The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, the latter being sub-divided into square compartments, the style is known as char-bagh. The Mughals also built large gardens in various levels and terraces on the char-bagh pattern. Scholars trace the evolution of the char-bagh pattern of gardening to the original land of the Mughals, the Kabul Valley, where depending upon the landscape and terrain, gardens and residential complexes were laid out. The Mughals inherited this garden type and superbly transformed it according to the new terrains in India. Thus, evolved a transformed style of char-bagh pattern of gardening. The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and the pietra-dura style of inlay decorations. As said above that before the emergence of indo-islamic architecture, it was trabeate method which was widely followed and with the establishment of Islamic rule, it was replaced by the Arcuate method of architecture. The major differences between the two can be classified as follows: S.N. Components Trabeate Arcuate 1. Entrance Lintel Arch Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 25 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: 2. Top Shikhara Dome 3. Minar’s (Persian Absent Present for ‘Azan’ Influence) 4. Material’s used Stone Brick, lime and Mortar Arabesque Method:It is a method of decoration. Arabesque means geometricized vegetal ornament. It is characterized by continuous stem which splits regularly producing a series of counter poised, leafy secondary stems which can intern split again or return to be reintegrated into the main stem. Figure 7 Arabesque 9.1 Imperial Style 9.1.1 Slave dynasty (1206-1290) It is also called as Ilbari dynasty, as all the ruler’s belonged to Ilbari tribe except Qutubuddin Aibak. The Style developed by them is called as Mamluk Style. They started converting existing structures into the Mosque’s. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was constructed by Qutub-ud-din Aibak around 1197 A.D. and as is very clear from inscriptions he demolished 27 Hindu and Jain temples within the Rajput citadel of Lalkot as well as the Quila-Rai Pithora and that their carved columns, lintels, ceiling slabs, all showing Hindu gods and goddesses, Purnaghatas and temple bells handing by chains, were utilised to construct the mosque known as the Might of Islam".The Qutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around 1199 by Qutub-ud-din and finally completed by his son-in-law and successor IItutmish (1210-35). Another early mosque, is the well known Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra at Ajmer which was also constructed from the material obtained after demolishing Hindu temples. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 26 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Figure 8 Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra Figure 9 Qutub Minar 9.1.2 Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320) The Style developed by them is called as Seljuk style. The Alai-Darwaza was, built by Allaudin Khilji by enlarging the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque's enclosures of colonnades and providing them two gateways. In this and other buildings constructed by the Khiljis, the true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe, broad dome, recessed arches under the squinch, perforated windows, inscriptional bands and use of red sandstone relieved by marble are features characteristic of Khilji architecture. Figure 10 Alai Darwaza 9.1.3 Tughlaqs Arch of this period is heavy, massive, rugged and simple. They used grey sandstone and employed minimum decoration. This period was called as ‘crisis period of architecture’ because focus was on strength rather than beauty. Hence, they introduced the concept of slopping walls known as “Battar”, combining the principles of arch and the lintel. To a certain extent the Hindu trabeated construction is still used; there are false arches and the dome is a typical importation from Syria and Byzantine. 9.1.4 Sayyid Period The Sayyid period was too short to evolve elaborate buildings, but the octagonal tombs of the time posses a distinct architectural character. The decorative features of these tombs consists of the use of blue enameled tiles enhancing the color effect. The Lotus motif crowning the tomb and free use of Guldasta’s considerably influenced the style of subsequent period. 9.1.5 Lodi’s Style In the Lodi period there is indication of a certain amount of imagination and a bold diversity of design. Enamel tile decoration tended to be richer and more lavish. The tomb architecture of Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 27 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: this period is of two types, though both have grey granite walls. One is octagonal in design having a verandah, the other is squre in plan, having no verandah. A spacious somewhat ornamental walled garden encloses the tombs, which gives the whole ensemble an elegance. (Sikander Lodhi established the city of Agra and made it as his capital. He also repaired Qutub- Minar.) 9.2 Provincial Style 9.2.1 Bengal School of Architecture The Islamic monuments of Bengal are not much different from such buildings elsewhere in plan and in design, but the use of a different building material and the execution of details inspired by local traditions have made them quite distinct. The so-called "Bengal" roof with sloping cornices, which originated from the bamboo- construction, was adopted by the Muslims and later it spread widely, even in other regions. Brick was the chief building material in the alluvial plains of Bengal from early times and remains so even now, the use of stone being limited largely to pillars which were mainly Figure 11 Adhuna Masjid obtained from demolished temples. The pillars in Bengal, even when constructed with brick, are generally short and square and the opening is usually accurate, for trabeate construction normally called for the use of stone. Covered brick and glazed tiles were usually pressed into service for decoration. At Gaur the earliest building representing the constructional and ornamental methods of this style, is the Dakhil Darwaja built by Barbak Shah (1959-74) as a ceremonial gateway in front of the citadel. With a tall arched entrance between vertical pylons on either side and tapering towers on the corners, it is an imposing structure. 9.2.2 Malwa School of Architecture It is essentially Arcuate. Some of its original features were the skillful and elegant use of arch with pillar and beam, lofty terraces approached by well proportioned stairways, impressive and dignified size of buildings, use of various colored stones and marbles and partly by bright coloured glazed tiles. The minaret is absent in this style. Notable Examples are Rani Rupamati pavilion, Ashrafi Mahal, Jahaj Mahal, Mandu fort. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 28 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: Figure 12 Rani Rupamati Pavilion Figure 13 Jahaj Mahal 9.2.3 Jaunpur School of Architecture It was influenced by the buildings of Tughlaq period but its typical feature was its bold and forceful character expressed in the huge imposing pro-pylon screens filling the central and side bays of prayer hall. It was Developed by Sharqui Dynasty hence also called as sharqui style. Notable Example is Atalla Masjid. 9.2.4 Bijapur School Figure 14 Atalla Masjid It developed during the reign of Adilshahi. And the most important example is Gol Gumbaz. The Gol Gumbad of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1627- 57). It is the largest dome cubicle in the world covering a total interior surface of over 1600 sq. metres. Architecturally it is a simple construction, its underground vaults consisting of a square grave chamber and a large single square chamber above ground. The large hemispherical dome surmounting it and then seven storeyed octagonal towers on its corners lend it a unique appearance. Each of its walls on the outside is divided Figure 15 Gol Gumbaz into three recessed arches, the central one panelled, with a running bracket - supported Chhajja at the cornice. A 3.4 m. wide gallery rests on its interior at the level of the drum. It is known as the whispering gallery, as even a whisper here reverberates as an echo under the dome. The large dome is hemispherical but is covered with a row of petals at the base. 9.3 Mughal Period With advent of the Mughals, Indo-Muslim architecture got a blood transfusion as it were, architectural activity having declined significantly during the role of the Lodis. The Mughals were quick to realise that they could not hope to establish a lasting empire in India unless they took within their fold, mixed and mingled with the local population, especially the Rajput Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 29 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: princess of Rajasthan. From being merely satisfied with establishing and somehow safeguarding their Sultanates as in the case of the Delhi Sultans, thinking themselves to be the conquerors, keeping aloof from their subjects and thus creating a wide gulf between themselves and the people of the country that they had the good fortune to rule, the Mughals turned deliberately towards conciliation and pacification of the Hindus. Akbar, did everything possible to live in peace and amity with his Hindu subjects. His policy of conciliation, his open admiration of Hindu culture and his unorthodox ways as the creator of a new eclectic religion, the Din-i-illahi, are reflected in architecture. Jahangir was half Hindu by blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput princess. Shahjahan too continued this policy of tolerance and respect for the Hindus. The Mughal empire, as well as Mughal architecture, flourished and rose to great heights under their benign rule, but all this ended abruptly under the last of the great Mughals, Aurangzeb, a puritanic Muslim, who tried to put the clock back and in this process stopped it and broke it by trying to reverse the entire conciliatory policy of his ancestors. He looked upon art, music, dance, painting and even architecture as an evil born of worldly desire and therefore there was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in aesthetic appreciation and architectural enterprise. Babar, the founder of the Mughal empire, was a man of culture and exceptional aesthetic taste. For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in war. However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of gardens are ascribed to him. No architecture worthy of note was made during his times except perhaps a couple of mosques. After Babar's death, his son, Humayun, succeeded him but he was driven out of India by Sher Shah Suri and after taking asylum in Iran, he eventually returned and overthrew Sikander Shah Sur, and regained his throne. To the Surs is ascribed, the tombs at Sasaram, in Bihar including Sher Shah's own tomb, which was made by moderating the Lodi octagonal pattern with a verandah around it, each side pierced by arches and the halls surmounted by a large and wide dome. The Surs made use of red and dark grey stone latticed screens, decorative turrets, painted ceilings and coloured tiles. The Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid inside, are also ascribed to Sher Shah Suri. The walls of the Purana Quila are made of enormous half fashioned stones, with strong and thick walls, ornamentation and decoration are minimal. The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture, is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum. This tomb is important for a proper study of the development of later Mughal architecture and has provided the prototype, followed by architects who designed the Mausoleum of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore, as well as the celebrated Taj Mahal, at Agra. Although Sikander Lodi's tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is Humayun's tomb which strikes a new Figure 16 Humayun's Tomb note. It is a memorial erected by a devoted wife for her imperial husband and is magnificent, grand and impressive. Raised on a vast platform, the tomb proper stands in the centre of a square garden, divided into 4 main parts by causeways (Charbagh) in the centre of which ran shallow water-channels. The square, red, sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over a high square terrace, raised over a Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 30 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: series of cells which are like a musical composition. The octagonal form of the central chamber containing the cenotaph, is inspired by Syrian and earlier Islamic models. It is for the first time that pink sandstone and white are used with admirable effect, the white is used cleverly to emphasise, surround and underline doors and windows, strengthening the design. There is a certain rhythmic quality in the whole structure in its symmetrical design and the repetition of the large dome in the similar pavillions with small but similar domes. The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions, in the arched alcoves, corridors and a high double dome as well as the kiosks (chhatris) which give it a pyramidal shape from a distance. The tomb stands as a loving creation of a devoted wife for a great emperor, an intrepid warrior and a strong man and is in character, solid and massive. Akbar was keenly interested in art and architecture and his architecture is a happy blend of the Hindu and Islamic modes of construction ornamentation. Akbar's seat of Government was Agra, it is there on the banks of the river Yamuna, that he started the construction of his famous Fort, made of red sand-stone, which was begun in 1565 and completed in 1574. This was the first time that depressed stone was used, also in the ramparts. With its high walls of neat sandstone facing the gateways, flanked by bastions, large halls, palaces, mosques,bazars, baths, gardens and houses for courtiers and noblemen, the fort at Agra laid a pattern in the construction of royal citadels Figure 17 Amar Singh Gate, Agra Fort that became a model for later ones. The Akbari Mahal and the buildings, along with the great and original city of Fatehpur Sikri, are made of red sandstone with trabeated construction and restricted ornamentation. The jambs, brackets, corbels and lintels of the doorways of the Jahangiri Mahal together with a Chajja above the doorways are profusely sculptured. Fatehpur Sikri was a town planned as an administrative unit consisting of public buildings as well as private residence in close proximity. The city of Fatehpur Sikri was founded as a token of gratitude to Sheikh Salim Chisti who had foretold that Akbar would have three sons who would survive after the sad demise of many children in infancy. The city was begun in 1569 and completed in 1574, the same year in which the fort at Agra was completed. The city is a modest and compact township, consisting of halls, palaces, offices, gardens, pleasure-resorts, baths, mosques, tombs, all of them little gems of architecture, making a town of great nobility. Almost all the structures are based on trabeate construction. The most typical and the most well known building is Panch Mahal, the highest and the most impressive structure, called the palace of five storeys. It is based on the Hindu system of trabeate structure, consisting of pillar, architrave, and brackets, with the only exception of the topmost domed pavilion, purposefully thrown out of the centre that crowns the entire building. The tower was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor and members of the royal household. The idea behind this impressive structure of diminishing storeys, one on top of the other, consisting of open, terraces in front of the covered areas, was comfort, shade and airy open pillared verandahs provided by perforated railings, constructed with an eye to providing Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 31 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: shade and fresh air, to the inhabitants seated on the cool floors. The Diwan-i-Khas or Hall of Private Audience, is of a unique design. It is a square chamber with three openings on each side and a richly carved column in the centre supporting a magnificent flower shaped capital. Thorough ventilation is provided by placing on all sides perforated windows opposite each other on every wall. The charming balcony supported by a circular top capital, runs round the halls whole length of the 4 sides on the first floor level, supported by brackets. It is believed that the central place was occupied by the Emperor's throne while his Ministers sat at the corners or on the peripheral passage. The Turkish Sultana's house consists of a small chamber surrounded by a verandah. It is beautifully carved both on the outside and inside; particularly remarkable being the wide dado carved with panels, portraying jungle scenes with animals, birds and trees. It is the most ornamented building in a "gigantic jewel casket" says Fergusson. Besides constructing a number of elegant, lavishly decorated buildings, such as Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, as well as the Jama Masjid in Delhi, Shahjahan erected the most romantic and fabulous building, the Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife, AIjumand Bano Begum entitled Mumtaz Mahal. It is a dream in marble and is the logical culmination of the conception of a garden tomb, starting with Humayun's tomb at Delhi. The Taj is a square tomb built on a raised Figure 18 Taj Mahal, Agra terrace, with graceful tall minarets at its four comers. As in Humayun's tomb, the tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary chambers at the angles and the tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome. The doorway is narrower and loftier, the dome is much more soaring. The dome has acquired a lotus pattern below with the finial. The Taj is noted for its ethereal and dreamlike lightness, graceful proportions and a harmonious balance between architecture and ornamentation. There is profuse carving and beautiful inlay work with precious multicolour stones in its floral and arabesque pattern, fme borders, inscriptions in black marble, delicate traceries and trellis work executed against the background of white marble. In its dreamlike airy lightness as well as in its precious inlay work, the feminine character is apparent, like the lovely lady in whose memory it was built, gentle, sweet and yielding. Like Humayun's tomb it was laid in a charbagh, or gardens with water channels and full of flowers. In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundation of Shahjanabad, the Seventh City of Delhi, containing his famous citadel, the Red-Fort, which was begun in 1639 and completed after 9 years. The Red Fort is an irregular octagon, well planned, with its walls, gates, and a few other structures constructed in red sandstone, and marble used for the palaces. It consists of a Diwan-i-Am, containing the marble canopy Figure 19Jali work, Khas ornamented with beautiful panels of pietra dura work showing a Mahal, Red Fort, Delhi few paintings. Diwan-i-Khas is a high ornamented pillared hall, with a flat ceiling supported on engraved arches. Its pillars contain pietra Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 32 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: dura ornamentation and the upper portion was originally gilded and painted. It is also said that its marble dais once supported the famous Peacock Throne. The exquisite marble screen containing a representation of the scales of justice and on the walls of this marble palace are Persian couplets, detailing the dates of the construction of the fort, the cost of construction and also the famous couplet claiming that "If there be a paradise on earth it is this, it is this, it is this". The luxury and love of constructing magnificent buildings, patronised by Jahangir and Shahjahan came to an end rather abruptly with the last of the great Mughals, Emperor Aurangzeb. Not many palaces of early Hindu rulers of medieval time have survived. Certain feature which characterise the Islamic construction were not coromed merely to Muslim forts, palaces, mosques and tombs, but were also incorporated by the Hindus, who made use of some of the indigenous features, and planned their building to suit their customs and ways of living. Rajasthan is rich in such palaces. The palaces built during the Mughal time may be different from each other in plan, but they have certain common architectural features, such as balconies supported on carved brackets, pillared kiosks crowned by domes, arcades of sunk arches, foliated arches, latticed screens, curved Bengal roofs and flat domes rising from a rectangular base. Situated as these palaces often are on rocky heights, they look very impressive such as those at Amber: Jaipur, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Jaisalmer, etc. Modern India and European Influence The Europeans who came to India for trade established their settlements at various places. In these settlements they built European style houses, besides the factories. When their foothold became strong, they began to construct more durable structures such as strong fortresses and imposing churches. The forts had no architectural significance. The Portuguese at Goa established impressive churches in the style of Iberian architecture, and the English, though in a less ambitious manner, built churches resembling the English village churches. A distinct type of building thus began to emerge in India. However, the Victorian style itself, being imitative rather than original, did not have a vitality of its own to inaugurate in India what could have been an Indo-British (like the Indo- Islamic) style of architecture. The Victorian architects in India made a mistake by attempting to copy oriental styles while trying to construct public buildings. Big brickwork buildings with iron supports and domed roofs represented Victorian architecture at its worst. On the whole, therefore, the nineteenth century English style did not manifest itself in any way comparable with past architecture. The Palladian Style of architecture was sought to be introduced in India by some other British officers in the 18th century. Constantia, a building erected by General Martin at Lucknow, is the best specimen of this style in India. A great central tower rising from a succession of terraced roofs is a characteristic of this style. Rajinder Nagar: 1/8-B, 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi Mukherjee Nagar: 103, 1st Floor, B/1-2, Ansal Building, Behind UCO Bank, Delhi-9 09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595 33 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS Student Notes: In the second-half of the 19th century, some of the European builders in India tried their best to combine elements and features from Indian and Western architecture. The pioneer of this movement was a civil servant, F. S. Growse. The Museum at Jaipur and the Moor Market in Madras (now, Chennai) are examples of this type of architecture. Sardar Ram Singh, a master builder of Punjab, designed the Central Museum and the Senate House at Lahore (in Pakistan). G. Wittet designed the Gateway of India in Mumbai, borrowing several elements of Mughal style. The Victoria Terminus Station (now known as the Chhatrapati Shivaji station), in Mumbai, is an outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with themes deriving from Indian traditional architecture. The building, designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, became the symbol of Bombay (now, Mumbai) as the ‘Gothic City’ and the major international mercantile port of India. The terminal was built over 10 years, starting in 1878, according to a High Victorian Gothic design based on late medieval Italian models. Its stone dome, turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture. British architects worked with Indian craftsmen to include Indian architectural tradition and idioms thus forging a new style unique to Bombay (now, Mumbai). Among the edifices of the Victorian era, the churches of Kolkata and Chennai, the cathedrals at Simla and Lahore, the Lahore High Court and the Calcutta High Court are noteworthy. But none of these edifices can be regarded as great pieces of architecture. At the end of the Victorian era India entered the era of national awakening and movement. The architecture represented the character of the time, a combination of the imperial needs and the national urges. The British wanted to perpetuate the memory of Queen Victoria in India by erecting a Memorial Hall in her Figure 20 Victoria Memorial name. But the style of that massive structure (at Kolkata) was sought to be o

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