Unit 1 Modernity & Architecture PDF

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These notes provide a detailed overview of modernity in architecture, touching briefly on historical and philosophical aspects, the Industrial Revolution, plus introductory material. The document includes architectural questions.

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Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Unit 1 Modernity & Architecture 1 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA SYLLABUS UNIT I MODERNITY AND ARCHITECTURE 10 Overview of modernity as a his...

Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Unit 1 Modernity & Architecture 1 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA SYLLABUS UNIT I MODERNITY AND ARCHITECTURE 10 Overview of modernity as a historical phenomenon and its various aspects and manifestations, encompassing social, cultural, technological, economic and political changes. Outline of various strands of modernity in architecture. Enlightenment ideals, Neo Classical architecture and its types. Outline of Industrial Revolution and associated changes. Urban transformations in Europe and America. Housing projects. New building types and spaces. Industrial material of steel, glass and concrete. New construction techniques and standardization. Split of design education into architecture and engineering streams. Industrial exhibitions. Chicago School, skyscraper development and Louis Sullivan. 2 Modernism “Modernism is both a philosophical movement and an art movement that aims to depart significantly from classical and traditional forms”. “A movement towards modifying traditional beliefs in accordance with modern ideas”. Architectural Questions: Modernism on the contrary to Classical era, is based on a notion that Time is Linear and not cyclic. This stressed on the importance Why do we build the way we of documenting the past to learn and preserve it for the future. build? Origin of Modernity wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in Western Why should we build it the society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries Extraordinary same way? technical changes the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I What is this way BASED on? Whose ideas? Birth of new consciousness that started to question its own IDENTITY. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief 3 Birth of Modernism Questioned the Universal validity of Vitruvian proportions? Result: Physical excavation of prehistoric to ancient Factors responsible for the birth buildings and structures to document and of modern architecture understand them afresh a. Birth of revolutionary theories Increased man’s ability to control nature b. Birth of historiography Split between Architecture and Engineering as two different fields c. Concept of picturesque Discussion began on a question whether the MODERNS d. The age of revival - Revivalism could not rival or even surpass the ANCIENTS to achieve the highest ideal of Art. Result: Replacement of CYCLIC model of history and life with the PROGRESSIVE model addressing every age as unique and unrepeatable and as an advance on proceeding periods. 4 BIRTH OF REVOLUTIONARY THEORIES Vitruvian Trinity: - The most traditional definition of the architecture had the following aspects - 1. Utilitas-commodious planning 2. Firmitas- sound construction 3. Venustas- Pleasing appearances Concept of ‘space’ as a positive architecture entity was added in the modern era. Though the architects with revolutionary ideas disputed the responsibility of the virtruvian concept, revolutionary architecture cannot discard any of these, but can only vary the degree of emphasis placed on one or more of these essential constituents at cost of the others. The four major architects who pioneered revolutionary theories were a. John Soane b. E.L.Boullee c. C.N.Ledoux d. J.N.L.Durand Their ideas were revolutionary as against “evolutionary”, whose aim was not to maintain tradition by applying and reinterpreting old principles in the length of changing conditions to re- evaluate the principles themselves 5 BIRTH OF REVOLUTIONARY THEORIES JOHN SOANE:-used combination of the style without consideration to involvement of any principle. Emphasized that the building should be designed like a group of sculptures with an entire whole appreciable from any point of view. Le Corbusier adopted his ideology. Eg: The Bank of England, Sir John soanel museum at Dulwich. E.L.BOULLEE:- Emphasized the use of symmetrical solids such as cubes, pyramids, spheres. He considered spheres as the only perfect architectural shapes, which can be devised. He set his imagination beyond barriers such as constructability or commodious. Eg:-Cenotaph for Isaac Newton, which was beyond the scope of construction materials and techniques available in that period. C.N.LEDOUX:- Being a disciple of Boullee exploited the dramatic effects of sphere and cube masses. He conceived building as a symbol which should be deliberately designed to express its function. This was against the practice of creating building as a resultant of their function. Thus he was a founder for the technique of “Expressionism”. This was adopted later by Enrich Mendelshon & E Saarinen. J.N.L. DURAND: - He considers economy and functional efficiency as the prime criteria for good design. He reiterated that a building could be pleasing if the practical requirements are satisfied, thus expressing the doctrine of functionalism. He preferred circular plan because they were economical and they 6 contained the greatest volume of the spaces for a given length of enclosing wall. HISTORIOGRAPHY The important events which happened around 1750 such as (i) Starting of school for modern civil engineering by Perronnet in 1747 (ii) In 1752, Blondel published the first modern History of architecture (iii) In 1754, Laugier published the first book equating architecture with rational construction. These events paved the way for the architecture following industrial revolution. These events produced several positive changes. Along with these there were negative effects such as uncertainty as to which of the architectural style was appropriate or correct and also abandonment of standardization, in architectural compositions. Since the value and elements of architectural style were disputed, a demand for variety arose. The industrial revolution meant that the old ways of living to be modified and lead to the creation of new structures to meet the transformed ways of living. Due to abundance of wealth, there was increased patronage for architecture from people other than the church or monarchy. The search for novelty triggered by the disputes in architecture was thus exploited by the younger architects in meeting the demands of their patrons such as barons, feudal lords and beneficiaries of the capital system. All the above was due to an awareness of history which leads to changes in architectural philosophy and implemented by the influences of economic factors. 7 PICTURESQUE This was originated in England, prior to 1740 the landscaping for setting of building followed by angular geometric patterns. Due to the English fondness for natural scenery done by their fondness for painters of natural scenery, there arose a desire for less rigid layouts of gardens. The term “picturesque” was associated with it due to its influence by painting. This style made for informality in interior setting of building, which led to introduction of artificially established rocks and cascades as a part of landscape. This influenced, in turn the design of cottages and villas to suit the picturesque settings they were to be placed. Stourhead Garden, Wiltshire, England 8 REVIVALISM Modern architecture was considered as a victory over “revivalism”-practice of past style in the 19th century. Between 1750- 1920 architecture went against the established principles. The uniqueness of the twentieth century revivalism was that several styles were revived at the same time with equal importance to each. Awareness of presences of “style” grows through various theorists. J.F.Blondel defined the style as “authentic character that has to embed the relative to the purpose of building. Nicholaus Pevsner defined the style as “what has together of the one that achievements of the creative individuals of one age” Pre-historians revived the Greek, Roman, Renaissances & gothic styles. Between 1920 and 1940, as a result of a revolution started by pioneers, architecture gradually returned to the traditional philosophy of buildings as understood before 1750 , but there were radical differences in appearance due to change in structure and materials. The only notion added to the vitruvian trinity is the concept of “space” - a positive architectural quality, which was as important as the structure by which it was confined. 9 Ar Tharangini K, HOA VI, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 10 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICISM CLASSICISM in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI and the work of FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI. It places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry, orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical antiquity and in particular, the architecture of Ancient Rome. The use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules ("little building") is a common framing device in both Classical architecture and Gothic architecture. An ædicular frame treats a window or a niche in a section of wall as if it were a building, sometimes with columns or pilasters flanking the opening. This style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. Building off of these influences, the seventeenth-century architects INIGO JONES and CHRISTOPHER WREN firmly established classicism in England. 11 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEO CLASSICISM The neoclassical movement that produced “Neoclassical architecture” began after A.D. 1765, as a reaction against both the surviving BAROQUE and ROCOCO styles, and as a desire to return to the perceived "PURITY" of the arts of Rome. Neoclassical architecture was in part reaction to the excess of Baroque, Rococo and was partly a consequence of new discoveries of Greek, Roman architecture. Neoclassical Art and Architecture, art produced in Europe and North America from about 1750 through the early 1800s, marked by the “surpass by imitation” of Greco-Roman forms. Neoclassicism first gained influence in Paris, through a generation of French art students trained at the French Academy in Rome. In Paris, many of the first generation of neoclassical architects received training in the classic French tradition through a series of exhaustive and practical lectures that was offered for decades by Jacques-François Blondel. The finest examples of this style were civic buildings and private houses. 12 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA ORIGINS OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE The architecture of Neo Classicism seems to have emerged out of two different but related developments which radically transformed the relationship between MAN and NATURE. The FIRST was a sudden increase in mans capacity to exercise control over nature, which by the mid 17th century had begun to advance beyond the technical frontiers of the renaissance. The SECOND was a fundamental shift in the nature of human consciousness, in response to major changes taking place in society, which gave birth to a new cultural formation that was equally appropriate to the lifestyles of the declining aristocracy and the rising middle class. Neoclassical architecture became an international style; each country held some distinct characteristic in their style. It was prevalent in France, Germany and England. The architects of the 18thcentury searched for a new style. Their motivation was not simply to copy the ancients but to obey the principles on which their work had been based. In its purest form it is a style principally derived from the ARCHITECTURE OF CLASSICAL GREECE. 13 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL STYLE- ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Neoclassical buildings are characterized by clean, elegant lines and uncluttered appearances. In Neoclassical architecture orders are used structurally rather than as a form of decoration. Columns are free-standing, supporting entablatures. Roof lines are generally flat and horizontal, without towers /domes. Facades tend to be long and flat. Classical proportion maintained on the exterior of the building. Minimal decoration on the exterior. 14 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND In England, where the rococo had never been fully accepted, the impulse to redeem the excess of baroque found its first expression. Between 1750 and 1765, the major Neo- Classical proponents could be found in residences. ARCHITECTS: James Stuart – James 'Athenian' Stuart (1713 – 88) is a compelling figure in the history of British design. Widely recognised for his central role in pioneering Neoclassicism, Stuart developed his influential career across the various fields of interior decoration, sculpture, furnishing, metalwork and architecture. The creation of the 'Greek Style' and its impact on British design in the late 18th century is largely due to Stuart's landmark publication Antiquities of Athens (1762). This influential book was the first accurate record of Classical Greek architecture and served as a principal source book for architects and designers well into the 19th century. Employed Greek Doric Order as early as 1758. Town houses - In the 18th century, rich families increasingly spent part of the year in London. The houses that they built were not merely spaces for living, but also an opportunity for entertaining and display. Their lavish interiors were an expression of taste and education as well as wealth. Front elevation, Lichfield Stuart’s reputation as a man of learning and an authority on classical art and design house at 15 St. James's enabled him to exploit the opportunities that arose in this flourishing market. He provided Square, London, James interior designs and built town houses, using Greek architectural elements that had never 'Athenian' Stuart, 1764 – 66 been seen before by the London public. Some examples of his work, include the interior 15 furnishings and exterior of Lichfield house at London Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND George Dance – George Dance, the Younger, (1741-1825), was a British architect who was responsible for extensive urban redevelopment in London and was a founding member of Great Britain’s Royal Academy of Arts. Designed Newgate Prison, London in 1765, followed Neo–Proportional Palldian theories of Robert Morris. Completed in 1782, Dance’s Newgate Prison rotated around a central courtyard and was divided into two differently sized quadrants. One was a common area for poor prisoners and the other was a state area for those who could afford more comfortable accommodation. These two sections were further divided based on the nature of the crime committed, between debtors and felons. The prison also held women: they entirely occupied the south wing of the building. George Dance’s Newgate Prison is also one of the few English prisons that was constructed following the architecture terribledesign advocated by French architect Jacques-François Blondel. 16 Thomas Hope – Greek Revival-Household furniture and Interior decoration (1807). Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE Neoclassicism first gained influence in Paris, through a generation of French art students trained at the French Academy in Rome. ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE: Claude Perrault : He questioned the validity of Vitruvian proportions, as they have been received and refined through classical theory. He gave his concept of “Positive beauty” (role of standardization and perfection) and “Arbitrary beauty(expressive function as may be required by a particular circumstance or character). Abbe’De Cordemoy- He codified the challenge by replacing the Vitruvian attributes namely utility, solidity and beauty by his own trinity. First principle was the correct proportioning of classical orders, the second was their appropriate disposition, and the third introduced the notion of fitness which warned against the inappropriate application of classical elements to utilitarian or commercial structures. Cordemoy was concerned with geometrical purity and was against baroque devices such as irregular columniation, broken pediments and twisted columns. He argued that many buildings did not need ornamentation at all. He was oriented towards Astylar masonry and orthogonal structures. Abbe Laugier – He reinterpreted Cordemoy. He classicized Gothic structures by providing: i. Neither arches nor pilasters ii. Nor pedastals iii. Nor other kinds of formal articulation iv. Interstices between columns would be as fully glazed as possible. 17 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE J.-G. Soufflot: Recreated the lightness, spaciousness and proportion of Classical architecture(Gothic). Such a ‘translucent’ structure was realized in soufflot’s church of Ste-Genevieve in Paris. The church’s design was meant “to unite … the purity and magnificence of Greek architecture with the lightness and daring of Gothic construction.” He was referring to the way in which its classical forms, such as the tall Corinthian columns and the dome, were joined with a Gothic type of structure that included the use of concealed flying buttresses and relatively light stone vaulting. Inside, the unusually abundant rows of free-standing columns support a series of Roman vaults and the central dome in a remarkably clear and logical expression of space and structure—one of the artistic goals of Soufflot and certain other French architects of his generation. Ste-Geneviève is a Greek cross in plan (nave, north and south transepts, and choir are of equal dimensions), and originally the walls were pierced with windows in each bay between the columns. This structure created a Gothic sense of openness out of the classical columns and round-arched (as opposed to Gothic pointed-arch) vaults. Together these elements endowed Soufflot’s building with stark order and light-filled spaciousness. The relative lack of decorative adornment contributed greatly to the sense of spatial clarity and austere grandeur. 18 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE Soufflot’s church of Ste- Genevieve in Paris 19 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE J.F. Blondel: He integrated the theory of Cordemoy and Soufflot. He opened an architecture School in 1743 and was the teacher of the Enlightenment or Visionary architects that included Etinne Louis Boullee, Jacques gondoin, Pierre Patte, Marie-Joseph Peyre, Jean-Baptiste Rondelet and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. He published an ideal Church design, which was related to Ste – Genevive and predominantly displayed a representational front, while articulating each internal element as part of the continuous spatial system whose infinite vistas evoked a sense of sublime. This church projects hints at the simplicity and grandeur that were to influence the works of many of his pupils, most notably Boullee. 20 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Neo Classicism - Enlightenment Ideals The intellectual movement of the Enlightenment developed with the rigid system of the rule known as ABSOLUTISM. The new movement aimed to liberate not just philosophy but every aspect of life from its traditional shackles and provide a new strictly reasonable, ratio based orientation J.F.Blondel after his opening of the architectural school in 1743, became the master of the so called “Visionary” or Enlightment generation of Architects. It included “Etinne Louis Boullee, Pierre Patte, Jacques Gondion, and probably the most visionary of all “Claude Nicolas Ledoux. In France Etinne Louis Boullee and Claude Nicolas Ledoux developed a simple cosmic geometry for their numerous unbuilt designs. Ledoux, in his two main built works, the state chemical works of ‘La Saline and the toll gates around Paris made good use of Tuscan style. 21 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Boullee Étienne-Louis Boullé(1728 - 1799) was a visionary French neoclassical architect whose work greatly influenced contemporary architects and is still influential today. Born in Paris, he studied under Jacques-François Blondel, German Boffrand and Jean-Laurent Legeay, from whom he learned the mainstream French Classical architecture in the 17th and 18th century and the Neoclassicism that evolved after the mid century. From 1772 –devoted his life to the projection of buildings so vast as to preclude their realization. He was elected to the Académie Royale d'Architecture in 1762 and became chief architect to Frederick II of Prussia, a largely honorary title. He designed a number of private houses from 1762 to 1778, though most of these no longer exist; notable survivors include the Hotel Alexandre and Hotel de Brunoy, both in Paris. All his buildings represented the social characteristics in accordance with teachings of blondel. He evoked the sublime emotions of terror and tranquility through the grandeur of his conceptions. More than any other enlightenment architects Boullee’ was obsessed with the capacity of light to evoke the presence of divine. He remained obsessed with imagining the monuments of some omnipotent state dedicated to the worship of the Supreme Being. 22 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects HIS PROJECTS - CENOTAPH designed for Sir Isaac Newton and ‘METROPOLE’ Boullee – CENOTAPH (1785) Evoked the sublime emotions of terror and tranquility through the grandeur of his conceptions He adopted the unadorned geometrical purity of monumental form and the immensity of vista to promote more exhilaration and anxiety. He used the capacity of light to invoke the presence of divine. In his design of the cenotaph of Sir Isaac Newton, he adopted a vast masonry sphere. He used light to portray divinity. A fire was suspended at night to represent the sun and extinguished during day time. The illusion of light was produced by the daylight shining through the spheres 23 perforated walls. Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Leodux Claude Ledoux was born in Dormans, France in 1736. He was educated at a private architectural school in Paris. Established by J. F. Blondel, the school emphasized native Baroque tradition but exposed students to English architecture. After completing his studies, Ledoux assumed several government positions as an engineer, mainly of bridge design. Ledoux' dramatic style owes much to the fact that he never visited Rome. His concepts of Roman architecture were accordingly warped by the engravings of Piranesi from which he derived his knowledge. He did visit England, where he was influenced by the Palladian tradition with which he was already familiar. Although much of Ledoux's architecture is quite practical and functional, the "visionary" aspects of his work are better known. His designs became symbols of the ancient regime and their exaggerated use of classical elements seems to anticipate post-modern classicism. BUILT PROJECTS - Palais de justice UNBUILT PROJECTS - La Saline, Ideal city of Chaux 24 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Leodux - Palais de Justice The strict cubic block with columns and pilaster function now no more than decorative arrangement elements. The columns, pilaster and timberworks oriented at classical models are just as characteristic of the direct early classicism. 25 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Leodux - Ideal city of Chaux, 1804 – A rural decentralised utopia The scheme of the salt works was built for Louis XVI at Arc-et-Senans in 1773 - 1779. He expanded this semicircular form of this complex into the representational core of his ideal city of Chaux, published in 1804. The semicircular salt works integrated productive units with the worker’s housing. The salt evaporation sheds on the axis were high-roofed like the agricultural buildings and finished with smooth ashlar, with rusticated dressings. While the Director’s house in the centre was low roofed, pedimented, rusticated throughout with classical porticos. 26 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand He built very little but influenced a whole generation of architects, namely Schinkel, Gartner, Klenze and Sempur. He reduced Boullee’s extravagant ideas to a normative and economic typology. Durand established a universal building methodology through modular permutation of fixed plan types and alternative elevations. His ideas that buildings could be planned in repetitive modular units, that their basic framework could be clad in different styles of architecture according to function or taste and that rich decoration was not essential to architectural effect, were a perfect formula for developing large urban settlements quickly effectively and cheaply. He exploited platonic volumes to achieve appropriate character at a reasonable cost. Durand’s criticism of Ste-Genevive, for example, with its 206 columns and 612 meters of wall, involved him in making a counter proposal for a circular temple of comparable area that would require only 112 columns and 248 meters of wall – a considerable economy, with which, according to him, one would have achieved a far more impressive aura. 27 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) He was a native Prussian; most of his works were carried out in and around Berlin. By 1830, he had produced his main works: the Neue Wache guard house (1816), the Schauspielhaus (1812-21), Humboldt’s country house (1822-18240 and the Altes museum. His means was severe and neo-classical though the effects he obtained in his interiors with dramatic lighting, changes in levels and spatial fluidity show an original mind at work. The influence of Durand is most clearly revealed in the Museum. The exteriors of the Altes Museum is restrained and is of academic Neo-Classicism; interiors is full of spatial effects. A two- storey entrance space within the portico, incorporating a fine double staircase, a splendid domed sculptured hall, and pictured galleries with hanging screens placed at right angles to the windows for the best lighting effects. Schinkel’s pupils and his successors followed the informality of his later works rather than rigidity of the classical style Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Altes Museum, Berlin, 1824-30: 28 plan; exterior; interior of the rotunda: cf. with the Pantheon dome; interior corridor view Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Enlightenment Architects Henri Labrouste (1801-1875) The Ste-Genevieve library (1843-50) by Henri Labrouste. It is a long rectilinear building in which an elegant neo-renaissance façade in two tiers conceals the interiors. A fine example of Iron engineering with a double row of semicircular iron vaults carried on iron columns. Labrouste’s design consists of a perimeter wall of books enclosing a rectilinear space and supporting an iron- framed, barrel-vault roof which is divided into two halves and further supported in the centre of the space by a line of Iron columns. Another main work of Labrouste is the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (1862-1868).This complex consists of a reading room covered by an Iron and glass roof carried on sixteen cast iron columns and a multi-storey wrought and cast-iron book stack. The roof of the main reading room is a cluster of nine domes faced with ceramic panels, with circular openings for lighting the interior. The elegance of the cast- iron roof structure contrasts with masonry walls around the perimeter. Reading room of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Sainte-Geneviève library in Paris 29 1860–67. Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Neo Classical Architecture and its type N The middle of the 19th century saw the Neo-classical heritage divided between two closely related lines of development: The structural Classicism of Labrouste and The romantic classicism of Schinkel. The structural Classicists tended to emphasize structure-the line of Cordemoy, Laugier and Soufflot. The romantic classicists stressed on the form-the line of ledoux, Boullee and Gilly. One school concentrated on such types as prisons, hospitals and railway stations while the other school focused on representational structures such as the university, museum, library and grandiose monuments. 30 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 31 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Industrial Revolution DEFINITION The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter half of the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones. It saw the transition to new manufacturing processes. CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:- At the dawn of the eighteenth century, farming was the primary livelihood in England, with at least 75% of the population making its living off the land. THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY was developed to take advantage of the farmers' free time and use it to produce quality textiles for a reasonable price. THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY helped to prepare the country for the Industrial Revolution by boosting the English economy. Thus, when industrialization and the Agricultural Revolution reduced the need for farm workers, many were forced to leave their homes and move to the city. The URBANIZATION OF THE ENGLISH POPULATION was largely fueled by farmers who moved to the city in the hopes of finding new work. This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because 32 conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution. Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA Industrial Revolution IMPACT Goods that had traditionally been made in the home or in small workshops began to be manufactured in the factory. Tasks which had earlier been carried out slowly were performed more quickly and more cheaply by machinery. Large numbers of people moved from rural areas to urban communities in search of work in the new factories, leading to expansion of cities. European architecture in the 19thcentury was profoundly influenced by the industrial revolution. Different types of building were also needed to meet new demands. Among them were houses, town halls, museums, concerts halls, libraries, hospitals, department stores, shopping arcades, schools, colleges, banks offices warehouses and factories. Railways, which affected social life, also influenced architectural practice. With the railways came a need for new kinds of buildings such as railway stations, railway hotels and goods yards. 33 Industrial Revolution Urban transformations in Europe and America. Large numbers of people moved from rural areas to urban communities in search of work in the new factories, leading to expansion of cities. In pre-industrial England, more than three-quarters of the population lived in small villages. By the mid-19th century, however, the country had made history by becoming the first nation with half its population in cities. The accommodation of such volatile growth led to the transformations of old neighborhoods into slums. These settlements were congested developments and had inadequate standards of light, ventilation and open space with poor sanitary facilities. These conditions naturally provoked a high incidence of disease and eventually the Public health act was enacted. This act in addition to others, made local authorities legally responsible for sewerage, refuse collection, water supply, roads and the burial of the dead. Edwin Chadwick inspired the society for improving the conditions of the laboring classes and he sponsored the erection of the first working class flats in London in 1844. Throughout the 19th century integrated industrial settlements emerged, where the industries 34 provided all the amenities to their workers. Industrial Revolution Urban transformations in Europe and America - TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES SIR TITUS SALT’S SALTAIRE, near Bradford in Yorkshire (1850), was a mill town, complete with traditional urban institutions such as a church, school, public baths, houses and park. THE FAMILISTERE WAS BUILT BY J.P.GODIN in 1859-70.This complex comprised of three residential blocks, a crèche, a kindergarten, a theatre, schools, public baths and laundry. THE ENGLISH PARK MOVEMENT FOUNDED BY HUMPREY REPTON attempted to project the “landscaped country estate into the city. Repton demonstrated this, in collaboration with the architect John Nash, in their layout of regent’s park in London (1812-27). The proposed development enclosing the park by a continuous display facade penetrating into the existing urban area and extending as a terraced accommodation from the aristocratic vistas of regent’s park in the north to the urbanity of St James Park and Carlton House terrace in the south. The Royal palace of the Carlton House was lined with elegant Neo-Classical buildings with broad Processional avenues. 35 Industrial Revolution Urban transformations in Europe and America - TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES IN 1853 HAUSSMANN regularized Paris into a regional metropolis. The city of Paris built some 137kms of boulevards which were considerably wider, more thickly lined with trees. With all this came standard residential plan types, regularized facades and standard system of street furniture’s. This entire was well ventilated with large open spaces. There was adequate sewer system and fresh water piped into the city from the Dhuis valley. By 1891, inventions like railways, electric tram, passenger lifts, steel frames which gave rise to multi-storey buildings, emerged as the natural unit for future expansion. The English concentric Garden city by Ebenezer Howard. 36 Industrial Revolution CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE BUILDINGS – 19th CENTURY There IS NO SINGLE STYLE WHICH IS CHARACTERISTIC OF THE 19THCENTURY.Architects drew their inspiration from and copied virtually every historical style know to them: Greek, Roman, Gothic, Renaissance as well as Chinese, Indian and Egyptian. Buildings are often more easily recognized as belonging to the 19thcentury by the function they perform than by the style in which they were built. Some buildings were designed in a single historical style, with the fundamental rules of that style strictly observed. Few others were a blend of different styles. A mixture of various styles within the same building is one of the characteristic features of the 19thcentury. Some styles were considered suitable for certain buildings ( Neo-Gothic for churches, Neoclassical for civic buildings). Another recognizable feature is mass produced decorative detail using the same mould. Other features include stained glass windows, patterned brickwork and ceramic tiling. Exteriors of many houses were notable for wrought iron balconies and contrasting colors of bricks. Most extraordinary feature of the 19th century architecture was combination of modern 37 technology and historic styles. Industrial Revolution Industrial material of steel, glass and concrete - Introduction Before, metals were not available in sufficient quantity or consistent quality to be used as anything more than ornamentation. The Industrial Revolution changed this situation dramatically. The availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. 38 Industrial Revolution Industrial material – Iron and Steel The development of construction methods in iron and steel was the most important innovation in architecture since ancient times. Iron was available in three forms. THE LEAST PROCESSED FORM - CAST IRON, was brittle due to a high percentage of impurities. It still displayed impressive compressive strength, however. WROUGHT IRON was a more refined form of iron, malleable, though with low tensile strength. Steel was the strongest, most versatile form of iron. Through a conversion process, all of the impurities were burned out of the iron ore, and then precise amounts of carbon were added for hardness. STEEL had tensile and compressive strength greater than any material previously available, and its capabilities revolutionized architecture. The explosion in the development of iron and steel structures was driven initially by the advance of the railroads. 39 Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel Bridges which were required to span gorges and rivers were of three types: 1. The BRIDGE WITH A TRADITIONAL ARCH made of iron instead of stone. 2. Later, THE TRUSS BECAME THE PRIMARY ELEMENT OF BRIDGE BUILDING. Trusses were used to build bridges of unprecedented strength throughout the nineteenth century, including cantilever bridges consisting of truss complexes balanced on supporting piers. 3. A third, more attractive TYPE OF STEEL BRIDGE WAS THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE, in which the roadway is hung from steel cables strung from supporting towers. Availability of Iron and Steel in large quantities enabled architects to build on a new and massive scale. The evolution of steel frame construction in the 20th century entirely changed the concept of the wall and the support. These methods provided for stronger and taller structures, greater unsupported spans over openings and interior or exterior spaces. 40 Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EARLY USE OF CAST IRON: The RAIL WAS THE FIRST UNIT OF CONSTRUCTION. Iron was avoided for dwelling houses and used for arcades, exhibition halls and railway stations. But the social conditions for its increase utilization as a building material came into being a hundred years. Cast iron, was used in bridge building as early as 1779. WILKINSON assisted DARBY and his architect, T.F.PRITCHARD in designing and erecting the first cast-iron bridge, a 30.5-metre span built over the severn near coalbrookdale in 1779. In 1796 THOMAS TELFORD made his debut as a bridge builder, a 39.5 –meter span bridge erected over the severn. William strut’s six-storey cotton mill, built at derby in 1792 and charles bage’s flax-spinning mill erected at shrewsbury in 1796, employed cast iron columns. In 1830s that EATON HODGKINSON introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction. The CRYSTAL PALACE BY JOSEPH Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; Cast and wrought iron products had been used extensively in building, especially in the 19th century, but were largely superseded by the beginning of the 20th century by hot-rolled steel 41 members. Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EARLY USE OF WROUGHT IRON: Wrought-iron masonry reinforcement in France had its origins in Paris, in PERRAULT’S east façade of Louvre(1667) and SOUFFLOT’S portico of Ste-Genevieve(1772). VICTOR LOUIS used wrought-iron roof for theatre Francais of 1786 and theatre in the palais-Royal of 1790. Around this time the technique of Iron construction underwent an independent evolution, beginning with the AMERICAN JAMES FINLAY’S invention of stiffened flat deck suspension bridge in 1801. British wrought- iron suspension construction culminated IN BRUNEL’S CLIFTON BRIDGE (span-214-metre), Bristol designed in 1829. BRITANNIA’S Tubular Bridge over the Menai straits, spanned 70m and Brunel’s salt ash viaduct (1859) made use of plated wrought iron. The PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889, which included Eiffel’s iron tower was designed by Gustave Eiffel with overall height of 300 metres. 42 FORTH BRIDGE IN SCOTLAND Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EARLY USE OF STEEL: The major disadvantage of iron - its low tensile strength, was overcome in the mid-1850s, when the Bessemer process of making steel (an alloy of iron and carbon) was introduced. EADS BRIDGE IN MISSOURI The first major structure built entirely of steel was the CANTILEVERED FORTH BRIDGE IN SCOTLAND, completed in 1890. Its record-setting spans of 521 m (1,710 ft) were the longest in existence until 1917. THE ARCHED EADS BRIDGE over the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri, designed by James Eads and completed in 1874, was the first steel bridge in the United States. At the time the Eads Bridge was built, it was the longest structure in the United States. The Eads Bridge has three main spans. The center span is 160 m (520 ft) BROOKLYN BRIDGE long, and the spans on either side are each 153 m (502 ft) in length. JOHN AND WASHINGTON ROEBLING also designed and built the BROOKLYN BRIDGE, which was the world’s longest suspension bridge at the time of its completion in 1883, having a main span of 486 m 31 cm (1,595 ft 6 in). The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge marked the beginning of an 80- 43 year period of large-scale suspension-bridge design in the United States. Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EARLY USE OF STEEL: GEORGE FULLER'S innovative steel-cage system for buildings, which involved a unified steel framework to support the weight of tall buildings, created the multi-story factories and the skyscrapers. The masonry bearing wall was transformed to the steel frame, which assumed all the load-bearing functions. The building’s skeleton could be erected quickly and the remaining components hung on it to complete it, an immense advantage for high-rise buildings on busy city streets. The Chicago architect LOUIS SULLIVAN, IN HIS WAINWRIGHT BUILDING (1890-1891) in St. Louis, Missouri, his Guaranty Building (1895) in Buffalo, New York, and his Carson Pirie Scott Department Store (1899-1904) in Chicago, gave new expressive form to urban commercial buildings. His career converges with the so-called Chicago School of architects, whose challenge was to invent the skyscraper or high-rise building, facilitated by the introduction of the electric elevator and the sudden abundance of steel. The best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Russian Constuctivist Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for a spiraling steel monument to the Third International in 1920 provided a dynamic and optimistic visual image for the new technology. By mid of 18th century cast iron columns and wrought iron rails used in conjunction with modular glazing, 44 had become the standard technique for the rapid prefabrication and erection of urban centres. Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EXAMPLES OF MODERN STRUCTURES OF STEEL 1. The Carson Pirie Scott and Company Building is a landmark department store building at State Street and Madison, Chicago, Illinois. It was designed by Louis Sullivan, built in 1899 for the retail firm Schlesinger & Meyer, and expanded and sold to Carson Pirie Scott in 1904.The building is remarkable for its steel structure, which allowed a dramatic increase in window area, which in turn allowed far more daylight into the building interiors, and far more display of merchandise to outside pedestrian traffic. The lavish cast-iron ornamental work above the rounded tower was also meant to be functional. Sullivan designed the corner entry to be seen from both State and Madison, and that the ornamentation, situated above the main entrance, would be literally attractive. The building is one of the classic structures of the Chicago school. 45 Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EXAMPLES OF MODERN STRUCTURES OF STEEL 2. Wainwright Building The Wainwright Building is a 10-story red-brick landmark office building in downtown Missouri. Built in 1891 and designed by Adler and Louis Sullivan, it is among the first skyscrapers in the world. Sullivan used a steel frame and applied his intricate terra cotta ornament in vertical bands to emphasize the height of the building. 46 Industrial Revolution Industrial material of iron and steel EXAMPLES OF MODERN STRUCTURES OF STEEL 3. Tatlin’s Constructivist tower Tatlin's Constructivist tower was to be built from industrial materials: iron, glass and steel. The tower's main form was a twin helix which spiraled up to 400 m in height. The main framework would contain three enormous rotating geometric structures. At the base of the structure was a cube which was designed as a venue for lectures, conferences and congress meetings. In the centre of the structure was a cone, housing executive activities. The topmost one, a cylinder, was to house an information centre. There were also plans to install a gigantic open-air screen on the cylinder. Although there were plans to build Tatlin’s Tower, the monument was never constructed. 47 Industrial Revolution Three 20th-century developments in Industrial material of Concrete production are destined to have a radical CONCRETE effect on architecture: The Industrial Revolution provided another building The first, concrete-shell construction material, a stronger more durable and fire resistant type of permits the erection of vast vaults and cement called Portland cement was developed in 1824. domes with a concrete and steel content The new material was still limited by low tensile strength, so reduced that the thickness is however, and could not be used in many structural comparatively less than that of an applications. The nineteenth century builders came up with eggshell. the idea of reinforced concrete. The second development, precast- Though expensive, iron and steel had high tensile strength concrete construction, employs bricks, and could be easily formed into long, thin bars. slabs, and supports made under optimal factory conditions to increase Enclosed in cheap, easily formed concrete, the bars were waterproofing and solidity, to decrease protected from fire and weather. The result was a strong, time and cost in erection, and to reduce economical, easily produced structural member that could expansion and contraction. take almost any form imaginable, including columns, beams, arches, vaults, and decorative elements. It is still Finally, prestressed concrete provides one of the most common building materials used today. bearing members into which reinforcement is set under tension to Reinforced concrete emerged simultaneously in Germany, produce a live force to resist a particular the United States, England, and France between 1870 and load. Since the member acts like a spring, 1900.. it can carry a greater load than an 48 unstressed member of the same size Industrial Revolution Industrial material of Concrete USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –BUILDING EXAMPLES IN FRANCE, FRANCOIS COIGNET was the first to use the reinforced concrete. In 1861 he developed a technique for strengthening concrete with metal mesh (ferroconcrete) and used this material in building sewers, other public structures including a remarkable series of six-storey apartment blocks in 1867. IN 1892 FRENCH ENGINEER FRANÇOIS HENNEBIQUE combined the strengths of both steel and concrete in a new system of construction based on concrete reinforced with steel. Hennebique’s invention of monolithic joints created monolithic frames. His invention made possible previously unimaginable effects: extremely thin walls with large areas of glass; roofs that cantilever to previously impossible distances; enormous spans without supporting columns or beam; and corners formed of glass rather than stone, brick, or wood. 49 Industrial Revolution USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –EXAMPLES Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret This 1903 apartment building with which Perret established his reputation is to be regarded as one of the canonical works of 20th-century architecture. On the façade, Perret clearly separated the structural elements of steel-reinforced concrete from the exterior walls, which were simply decorative panels or windows rather than structural necessities. Perret deliberately made the apartment partition walls nonstructural throughout and their partial removal would have yielded an open space, punctuated only by a series of free-standing columns. The cantilevers at the first floor level were made possible with use of the new material. Each floor is organized with the main and service stairs to the rear (each with its own elevator) the kitchen to one side and the principal rooms to the front. 50 Industrial Revolution - Concrete Einstein Tower "Erich Mendelsohn's small, but powerfully modeled tower, built to symbolize the greatness of the Einsteinian concepts, was also a quite functional house. It was designed to hold Einstein's own astronomical laboratory. Mendelsohn was after a completely plastic kind of building, moulded rather than built, without angles and with smooth, rounded corners. He needed a malleable material like reinforced concrete, which could be made to curve and create its own surface plasticity, but due to post-war shortages, some parts had to be in brick and others in concrete. 51 Industrial Revolution Industrial material of Glass GLASS The invention of glass took place around 4000 years ago in the eastern Mediterranean. Two thousand years passed between the initial discovery and the appearance of blown glass, which led to the production of thin transparent sheets strong enough for windows. This marked the beginning of a symbiosis between glass and buildings. The use of glass as a building material allowed architects to explore on a larger scale. The next quantum leap occurred in the nineteenth century, with the introduction of the skeletal structural frame, initially fabricated from cast and wrought iron, and latterly steel and reinforced concrete. Iron and glass technology generated a new architectural language and new typologies - conservatories, arcades, heroic glazed rail sheds and exhibition buildings, notably Paxton's seminal Crystal Palace of 1851 which used over 300,000 sheets of glass. 52 Industrial Revolution Industrial material of Glass GLASS Use of Glass – Building Examples Fontaine’s Galerie d’Orleans built in the Palais Royal in 1829 was the earliest arcade to have a glass barrel vault. Richard Turner and Decimus Burton’s Palm House at Kew Gardens built in 1845-48, was one of the first structures to use sheet glass. The Crystal Palace(1851) by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; Gropius' Fagus Factory of 1911 was one of the first examples of a glass facade supported by a thin steel framework; Bruno Taut's polygonal Glashaus Pavilion for the 1914 Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne was made entirely from glass. 53 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS 54 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS During the 19th&20th century international exhibitions, popularly called world's fairs, have become elaborate showcases for technological and cultural developments as well as manufactured products. Some of the important international expositions include: 1. The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London (1851) 2. In Paris a series of international Expositions were held, they are : -The Paris Exposition of 1855, Exposition Universelle (1855), -The Paris Exposition of 1867, -The Paris Exposition or Paris World's Fair of 1878, -The Paris Exposition of 1889, Exposition Universelle (1889) , -The Paris Exposition of 1900, 3. World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893. 4. Vienna Exposition held in 1873. 55 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – 1851- The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace The Crystal Palace was a glass and cast iron structure built in London, England, for the Great Exhibition of 1851. The building was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, an architect and gardener, and revealed breakthroughs in architecture, construction and design. Over 13,000 exhibits were displayed and viewed by over 6,200,000 visitors to the exhibition. This building was divided into a series of courts depicting the history of art and architecture from ancient Egypt through the Renaissance. Already a famous gardener at the time, Paxton experimented extensively with glasshouse construction. Using combinations of prefabricated cast iron, laminated wood, and standard sized glass sheets, Paxton created the “ridge-and-furrow” roof design. Sir Joseph Paxton, its architect, was famous for his elegant conservatories and greenhouses; in essence, the Crystal Palace was the largest greenhouse ever built. Except for three entrance porches, symmetrically 56 disposed, its glazed perimeter was uninterrupted. Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – 1851- The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace Paxton USED PREFABRICATED GLASS UNITS framed in wood and cast iron, supporting them on a cast-iron skeleton. The massive glass house was 1848 feet (about 563 m) long by 454 feet (about 138 m) wide, and went from plans to grand opening in just nine months. Its overall form was structured around a basic 8 feet cladding module, structural spans varying from 24 to72 feet. The Crystal Palace itself was almost outshone by the park in which it stood, which contained a magnificent series of fountains, comprising almost 12,000 individual jets. The park also contained unrivaled collections of statues, many of which were copies of great works from around the world. After the Great Exhibition closed, the Crystal Palace was moved to Sydenham Hill in South London and reconstructed in what was, in effect, a 200 acre Victorian theme park. 57 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – 1851- The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace 58 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION - 1855 After London hosted the first international exposition in 1851, Napoleon III realized that France needed to seize back the initiative. The Exposition Universelle held in Paris in 1855, Jean-Marie Viel and Alexandre Barrault served respectively as architect and engineer for the Palais de l’Industrie. The Palace of Industry measured 850 feet long and 350 feet wide. The principal nave itself was 630 feet long, 158 feet wide and connected on four sides by two story high, ninety-eight foot wide aisles. It contained semi-circular trusses which bridged an 80 foot span to create an enormous exhibition room. This giant structure was located on a triangular plot of land. 59 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION – 1867 Le Play proposed a temporary oval exhibition palace whose appearance would recall the Roman Colosseum. The engineer JEAN BAPTISTE KRANTZ was commissioned with the design and construction of the 490 metres long and 390 metres wide building, which was altogether to cover an area of 150,000 square metres. Léopold Hardy, Charles Duval and the young Gustave Eiffel assisted in the realization of the plans. Cast iron pillars and wrought iron piles on the foundation walls formed the framework which supported the roof construction of glass and corrugated sheeting, which ensured an even and natural light in the halls. 60 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION -1878 The third Paris World's Fair, called as Exposition Universelle in French was held in 1878. The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was on a far larger scale in every respect than any which had been previously The Champ de Mars- 1878 Exposition Universelle held in any part of the world. The total area covered over 66 acres (267,000 m²), the main building is the Champ de Mars occupying 54 acres (219,000 m²). The two main structures include the Trocadero Exterior of the Champ de Mars. Palace which was demolished in 1936 and the Champ de Mars (1878). The Trocadero Palace constructed for the 1878 Exposition View of the Exposition with Trocadero Palace on the right and 61 Universelle - Demolished 1936. the Champ de Mars to the left. Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE - 1900 The magnificent buildings produced for the Paris exposition in 1900 - THE EIFFEL TOWER, THE TROCADERO AND THE MACHINE HALL. The strong increase in the number of themes to be exhibited and participating nations resulted in collaboration between a large numbers of architects and prevented the exposition from focusing on any one particular architectural style. The exhibition site could be entered via a main gate with 36 entrances. The "Porte Monumentale" - also known as the "Porte Binet", after its architect, was an example of richly ornamented scenic architecture which had a major influence in shaping the exposition's overall appearance. The hall consisted of three arches connected in a triangle, covered by a dome roof of 500 square metres in size. Two minarets of 35 metres in height flanked the main arch for lighting purposes. A tower emerged from the dome like a bud, and the host city of Paris was represented at the top of this tower in the form of an allegorical female figure by Paul Moreau-Vauthier. The Grand Palais des Arts - the venue for the international exhibition of contemporary art - was the result of the collaboration of four architects, whose different approaches were expressed in the four different historicizing façade designs. 62 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE - 1900 The Eiffel Tower The Eiffel Tower was built for the International Exhibition of Paris of 1889 commemorating the centenary of the French Revolution. Designed by the French engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) for the entrance to the 1889 Exposition Universelle in the Paris Champ de Mars. The Eiffel Tower is the tallest structure in Paris, and reigned for 40 years as the tallest in the world. The metal lattice-work, formed with very pure structural iron, makes the tower both extremely light and able to withstand tremendous wind forces. At 300 metres (320.75m including antenna), and 7000 tons, it was the world's tallest building until 1930. It was possible to make it so tall because Eiffel could use the new material steel for his construction. 63 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE - 1900 The Eiffel Tower The lower section of the Other statistics tower consists of four include: immense arched legs set on masonry piers. 1. 2.5 million rivets. The legs curve inward 2. 300 steel workers, until they unite in a single and 2 years (1887- tapered tower. 1889) to construct it. There are three main 3. Height varies up to platforms, each with an 15 cm depending on observation deck. temperature. The first deck is 57 m 4. 15,000 iron pieces (187 ft) high, the second (excluding rivets). is 116 m (381 ft) off the 5. 40 tons of paint. ground. Both are accessible by stairs or 6. 1652 steps to the elevator. top. The third deck, which is 276 m (906 ft) high, is accessible to visitors only 64 by elevator. Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION - 1900 The Eiffel Tower 65 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE - 1900 Gallerie des Machines (1843 -93) The "Gallerie des Machines" consists of a huge 422m long, 114m wide and 47m high hall. The Machines” was built by Charles Dutert and Victor Contamin (1843-93) and demolished in 1910. The structure was spanned by a series of vast steel principal arches which were hinged at the base and apex, braced longitudinally with steel ribs. Comparable in volume with the crystal palace, the gallerie was structurally more dynamic and the first major example of the advantages of steel over iron. 66 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, HELD IN CHICAGO The World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago in 1893. The Exposition occupied 630 acres in Jackson Park and the Midway. The main site was bounded by Stony Island Avenue on the west, 67th Street on the south, World's Columbian Exposition – Chicago Lake Michigan on the east, and 56th Street on the north. The Midway Plaisance, a narrow strip of land between 59th and 60th streets, extends west from Stony Island to Cottage Grove Avenue. The Woman's Building exhibited over 400 years of progress made by women. Displays included objects made by nineteenth-century women from Europe and the United States as well as women's work by Native Americans. Getting a building of their own symbolized the importance The Woman's Building The dome of the Horticulture of women at the Exposition. Building 1892 The statue of the Republic symbolized the strength of the country, which had survived a The Court of Honor civil war and was taking in immigrants from all and the Statue of the 67 over the world. Republic Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS –VIENNA EXPOSITION This fair was the first exposition to use multiple buildings instead of one main structure. The Vienna exposition was the first to house the various categories of production in separate buildings, while the national exhibits remained in a single structure. The MOST PROMINENT FEATURE IS THE ROTUNDA, the enclosed circular building. The rotunda was actually just one part of the Palace of Industry, which expanded on either side to form a horizontal strip about 2,953 feet long, running from east to west with shorter corridors intersecting it. This created a series of twenty-eight galleries that displayed an international array of industrial products. The palace was designed to be a permanent structure, and was used after the exposition to hold trade shows. When it burned down in 1937, new trade fair exhibition halls were built that still remain in use today. Plan of the Weltausstellung in Vienna (1873) 68 Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS –VIENNA EXPOSITION The Machinery Hall ran parallel to, and was located north of, the main building, towards the top of the map. It was 2060 feet long and 125 feet wide. It consisted in a single room, 60 feet high, and was built with brick walls and an iron roof. The building could accommodate two parallel railway tracks, and was reused as a storage Exterior of the Vienna exposition building for the Great Northern Railway after the fair was over. The Art Hall, directly to the east of the rotunda and main exposition buildings. It was 100 by 600 feet and made of brick, with stucco finish on the outside. It held mostly paintings, with a few statues and statuettes dispersed throughout. Art exhibits were divided into three categories: fine art, religious art, and amateur art. This illustration depicts the Rotunda during opening 69 ceremonies at the exposition in Vienna (1873) Industrial Exhibitions INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS –The Barcelona International Exhibition (1929) - The Barcelona Pavilion The Barcelona Pavilion was designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) as the German national pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exhibition. Built from glass, travertine and different kinds of marble, the Pavilion was conceived to accommodate the official reception presided over by King Alphonso XIII of Spain along with the German authorities. The pavilion had a flat roof supported on chrome columns. The steel skeleton and the pavilion’s walls, rectangular planes of marble, glass, and onyx placed vertically or horizontally, could be freely positioned and made it possible that space seems to flow through them. This use of the open plan achieves extreme lightness The German Pavilion -1929 and movement. The pavilion has become a key reference point in both the career of mies van der rohe and 20th-century architecture as a whole. 70 Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA CHICAGO SCHOOL & SKYSCRAPER DEVELOPMENT 71 CHICAGO SCHOOL INTRODUCTION Chicago's architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is referred to as the Chicago School. Much of its early work is also known as Commercial style. In the history of architecture, the first Chicago School was a school of architects active in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century. They included Henry Hobson Richardson, Dankmar Adler, Daniel Burnham, William Holabird, William LeBaron Jenney, Martin Roche, John Root, Solon S. Beman, and Louis Sullivan. They were among the first to promote the new the world’s first skyscraper rose to its full height in 1884. technologies of steel-frame construction in Architect and structural Engineer William Le Baron Jenney commercial buildings, and developed a spatial designed the 42-meter-high Home Insurance Building; the aesthetic which co-evolved with, and then first tall structure to utilize steel for framing. The building came to influence, parallel developments in comprised 10 floors which became 12, 7 years later, increasing European Modernism. the height of the whole edifice to 54.9 meters. Unfortunately, you can only view this building in old images now because it 72 was demolished in 1931 to be replaced by an even higher CHICAGO SCHOOL CHARACTERS Some of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School are the use of steel- frame buildings with masonry cladding (usually terra cotta), allowing large plate- glass window areas and limiting the amount of exterior ornamentation. Sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture are used in Chicago School skyscrapers. Many Chicago School skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column. The lowest floors functions as the base, the middle stories, usually with little ornamental detail, act as the shaft of the column, and the last floor or two, often capped with a cornice and often with more ornamental detail, represent the capital. The "Chicago window" originated in this school. It is a three-part window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting out from the facade forming bay windows. The Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows were often deployed in bays, known as oriel windows, that projected out over the street 73 CHICAGO SCHOOL CHARACTERS 74 CHICAGO SCHOOL EXAMPLES Some of the more famous Chicago School buildings include: Louis Sullivan's Carson, Pirie, Scott & Co. Building Auditorium Building Reliance Building Chicago Building Brooks Building Monadnock Building Wainwright Building 75 CHICAGO SCHOOL LOUIS SULLIVAN Known as Chicago's "Father of Skyscrapers," Louis Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924) foreshadowed modernism with his famous phrase "form follows function." Sullivan was an architectural prodigy even as a young man, graduating high school and beginning his studies at MIT when he was just 16. Works of Sullivan After just a year of study he dropped out of MIT, Auditorium Building, at Chicago, Illinois, and by the time he was just 24 he had joined forces with Dankmar Adler as a full partner of Adler Babson House, at Riverside, Illinois, and Sullivan. Bradley House at Madison, Sullivan is arguably best known for his influence on National Farmers' Bank at Owatonna, Minnesota, the modernists that followed him, including his protegé Frank Lloyd Wright. Pilgrim Baptist Church, at Chicago, Illinois, Though he is known for his beautiful use of Schlesinger and Meyer Department Store at ornament, his true innovation came in the way he Chicago, Illinois adapted previous ornamental styles to the newly- St. paul's Church at Cedar Rapids, Iowa emerging tall buildings of the late 19th century, using it to emphasize a building's verticali Wainwright Building, at St. Louis, Missouri 76 CHICAGO SCHOOL AUDITORIUM BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS "The Auditorium was built for a syndicate of businessmen to house a large civic opera house; to provide an economic base it was decided to wrap the auditorium with a hotel and office block. Hence Adler & Sullivan had to plan a complex multiple-use building. Fronting on Michigan Avenue, overlooking the lake, was the hotel (now Roosevelt University) while the offices were placed to the west on Wabash Avenue. The entrance to the auditorium is on the south side beneath the tall blocky seventeen-story tower. The rest of the building is a uniform ten stories, organized in the same way as Richardson's Marshall Field Wholesale Store. The interior embellishment, however, is wholly Sullivan's, and some of the details, because of their continuous curvilinear foliate motifs, are among the nearest equivalents to European Art Nouveau architecture. 77 CHICAGO SCHOOL AUDITORIUM BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS The Auditorium is a heavy, impressive structure externally. Innovative features of the building was its massive raft foundation. The soil beneath the Auditorium consists of soft blue clay to a depth of over 100 feet, which made conventional foundations impossible. Adler and Mueller designed a floating mat of crisscrossed railroad ties, topped with a double layer of steel rails embedded in concrete. In the center of the building was a 4,300 seat auditorium, originally intended primarily for production of Grand Opera. The auditorium was designed so that all seats would have good views and acoustics. The original plans had no box seats and when these were added to the plans they did not receive prime locations. Housed in the building around the central space were an 1890 addition of 136 offices and a 400-room hotel, whose purpose was to generate much of the revenue to support 78 the opera CHICAGO SCHOOL AUDITORIUM BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 79 CHICAGO SCHOOL NATIONAL FARMERS' BANK AT OWATONNA, MINNESOTA Massive and stately—68 feet broad and about 53 feet tall— its silhouette and ornamental patterns strike golden section rectangles. Though much smaller in scale than the earlier skyscrapers, the bank is just as clearly expressed in its parts. Great vaulted windows pierce the deep walls, and a row of dark square windows punctures the base. Strength in concept; surprise and contradiction in detail. The main banking room is a single cubical space enclosed by a box, indicated by the wide stained-glass lunette windows. The base is of red sandstone, with dark red brick walls. Ornamentation is concentrated in panels, of bronze-green terra cotta, with intricate cast iron escutcheons at the corners; the cornice is simply corbeled brick courses. To the rear is a separate block housing offices and shops, a speculative venture by the bank, but clearly related to the bank in materials and design." 80 CHICAGO SCHOOL SULLIVAN CENTER OR CARSON, PIRIE, SCOTT & CO. BUILDING The Sullivan Center commercial building in Chicago, Illinois. A Chicago Landmark, the building was designed by Louis Sullivan, built in 1899 for the retail firm Schlesinger & Meyer. The building is remarkable for its steel structure, which allowed a dramatic increase in window area. This has in turn allowed more daylight into the building interiors, and provided larger displays of merchandise to outside pedestrian traffic. The lavish cast-iron ornamental work above the rounded tower was also meant to be functional 81 CHICAGO SCHOOL WAIN WRIGHT BUILDING The Wainwright Building is a 10-storey red-brick landmark office building in Missouri. Built in 1890-91 and designed by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan, it was among the first skyscrapers in the world. Most historians consider the Wainwright Building one of the most important works in American architecture. Aesthetically, the Wainwright Building exemplifies Sullivan's theories about the tall building, which included a tripartite (three-part) composition (base-shaft-attic), and his desire to emphasize the height of the building. According to him the skyscraper must be tall, every inch of it tall. A building with a strong, vigorously articulated base supporting a screen that constitutes a vivid image of powerful upward movement 82

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